Yeast strains engineered to produce ethanol from acetic acid and glycerol

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to processes for producing ethanol from lignocellulosic hydrolysates comprising hexoses, pentoses and acetic acid, whereby genetically modified yeast cells are use that comprise an exogenous gene encoding an acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and a bacterial gene encoding an enzyme with NAD + -linked glycerol dehydrogenase activity. The process is further characterized in that glycerol is present in or fed into the culture medium, whereby the modified yeast cell ferments the hexoses, pentoses, acetic acid and glycerol to ethanol. The invention further relates to yeast cells for use in such processes. The yeast cells advantageously comprise genetic modifications that improve glycerol utilization such as modifications that increase one or more of dihydroxyacetone kinase activity and transport of glycerol into the cell. The yeast cell further preferably comprises a functional exogenous xylose isomerase gene and/or functional exogenous genes which confer to the cell the ability to convert L-arabinose into D-xylulose 5-phosphate and they may comprise a genetic modification that increase acetyl-CoA synthetase activity.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to metabolic engineering in microorganisms such as yeast. In particular the invention relates to yeast strains that have been engineered to produce ethanol from acetic acid and glycerol. In addition to acetic acid and glycerol, the yeast strain may also consume hexoses and pentoses for the production of ethanol. The invention further relates to the processes wherein the engineered strains of the invention produce ethanol from acetic acid and glycerol.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Second generation bioethanol is produced from e.g. lignocellulosic fractions of plant biomass that is hydrolysed to free monomeric sugars, such as hexoses and pentoses, for fermentation to ethanol. Lignocellulosic hydrolysates contain high amounts of acetic acid, which is a potent inhibitor of the fermentative capacities of microorganisms used for ethanol production such as yeasts.

Sonderegger et al. (2004, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70: 2892-2897) disclose heterologous expression of phosphotransacetylase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in xylose-fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain. In combination with the native phosphoketolase, Sonderegger et al. thereby created a functional phosphoketolase pathway that is capable of net reoxidation of NADH generated by the heterologous expression of a xylose reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase that are used for xylose utilization in the strain.

Guadalupe et al. (2009, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. doi:10.1128/AEM.01772-09) disclose a Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain wherein production of the by-product glycerol is eliminated by disruption of the endogenous NAD-dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase genes (GPD1 and GPD2). Expression of the E. coli mhpF gene, encoding the acetylating NAD-dependent acetaldehyde dehydrogenase restored the ability of the GPD-disrupted strain to grow anaerobically by supplementation with of the medium with acetic acid.

Yu et al. (2010, Bioresour. Technol. 101(11):4157-61. Epub 2010 Feb. 9) disclose Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains metabolically engineered for improved ethanol production from glycerol by simultaneous overexpression of glycerol dehydrogenase (GCY), dihydroxyacetone kinase (DAK) and the glycerol uptake protein (GUP1).

Lee and Dasilva (2006, Metab Eng. 8(1):58-65) disclose the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae engineered to produce 1,2-propanediol from glycerol by inter alia introducing expression of the Escherichia coli mgs and gldA genes.

It is an object of the present invention to provide for yeasts that are capable of producing ethanol from acetic acid and glycerol (and hexoses and pentoses), as well as processes wherein these strains are used for the production of ethanol and/or other fermentation products.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Definitions

Sequence identity is herein defined as a relationship between two or more amino acid (polypeptide or protein) sequences or two or more nucleic acid (polynucleotide) sequences, as determined by comparing the sequences. In the art, “identity” also means the degree of sequence relatedness between amino acid or nucleic acid sequences, as the case may be, as determined by the match between strings of such sequences. “Similarity” between two amino acid sequences is determined by comparing the amino acid sequence and its conserved amino acid substitutes of one polypeptide to the sequence of a second polypeptide. “Identity” and “similarity” can be readily calculated by known methods. The terms “sequence identity” or “sequence similarity” means that two (poly)peptide or two nucleotide sequences, when optimally aligned, preferably over the entire length (of at least the shortest sequence in the comparison) and maximizing the number of matches and minimizes the number of gaps such as by the programs ClustalW (1.83), GAP or BESTFIT using default parameters, share at least a certain percentage of sequence identity as defined elsewhere herein. GAP uses the Needleman and Wunsch global alignment algorithm to align two sequences over their entire length, maximizing the number of matches and minimizes the number of gaps. Generally, the GAP default parameters are used, with a gap creation penalty=50 (nucleotides)/8 (proteins) and gap extension penalty=3 (nucleotides)/2 (proteins). For nucleotides the default scoring matrix used is nwsgapdna and for proteins the default scoring matrix is Blosum62 (Henikoff & Henikoff, 1992, PNAS 89, 915-919). A preferred multiple alignment program for aligning protein sequences of the invention is ClustalW (1.83) using a blosum matrix and default settings (Gap opening penalty:10; Gap extension penalty: 0.05). It is clear than when RNA sequences are said to be essentially similar or have a certain degree of sequence identity with DNA sequences, thymine (T) in the DNA sequence is considered equal to uracil (U) in the RNA sequence. Sequence alignments and scores for percentage sequence identity may be determined using computer programs, such as the GCG Wisconsin Package, Version 10.3, available from Accelrys Inc., 9685 Scranton Road, San Diego, Calif. 92121-3752 USA or the open-source software Emboss for Windows (current version 2.7.1-07). Alternatively percent similarity or identity may be determined by searching against databases such as FASTA, BLAST, etc.

Preferred methods to determine identity are designed to give the largest match between the sequences tested. Methods to determine identity and similarity are codified in publicly available computer programs. Preferred computer program methods to determine identity and similarity between two sequences include e.g. the GCG program package (Devereux, J., et al., Nucleic Acids Research 12 (1):387 (1984)), BestFit, BLASTP, BLASTN, and FASTA (Altschul, S. F. et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410 (1990). The BLAST X program is publicly available from NCBI and other sources (BLAST Manual, Altschul, S., et al., NCBI NLM NIH Bethesda, Md. 20894; Altschul, S., et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410 (1990). The well-known Smith Waterman algorithm may also be used to determine identity.

Preferred parameters for polypeptide sequence comparison include the following: Algorithm: Needleman and Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443-453 (1970); Comparison matrix: BLOSSUM62 from Hentikoff and Hentikoff, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89:10915-10919 (1992); Gap Penalty: 12; and Gap Length Penalty: 4. A program useful with these parameters is publicly available as the “Ogap” program from Genetics Computer Group, located in Madison, Wis. The aforementioned parameters are the default parameters for amino acid comparisons (along with no penalty for end gaps).

Preferred parameters for nucleic acid comparison include the following: Algorithm: Needleman and Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443-453 (1970); Comparison matrix: matches=+10, mismatch=0; Gap Penalty: 50; Gap Length Penalty: 3. Available as the Gap program from Genetics Computer Group, located in Madison, Wis. Given above are the default parameters for nucleic acid comparisons.

Optionally, in determining the degree of amino acid similarity, the skilled person may also take into account so-called “conservative” amino acid substitutions, as will be clear to the skilled person. Conservative amino acid substitutions refer to the interchangeability of residues having similar side chains. For example, a group of amino acids having aliphatic side chains is glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine; a group of amino acids having aliphatic-hydroxyl side chains is serine and threonine; a group of amino acids having amide-containing side chains is asparagine and glutamine; a group of amino acids having aromatic side chains is phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan; a group of amino acids having basic side chains is lysine, arginine, and histidine; and a group of amino acids having sulphur-containing side chains is cysteine and methionine. Preferred conservative amino acids substitution groups are: valine-leucine-isoleucine, phenylalanine-tyrosine, lysine-arginine, alanine-valine, and asparagine-glutamine. Substitutional variants of the amino acid sequence disclosed herein are those in which at least one residue in the disclosed sequences has been removed and a different residue inserted in its place. Preferably, the amino acid change is conservative. Preferred conservative substitutions for each of the naturally occurring amino acids are as follows: Ala to ser; Arg to lys; Asn to gln or his; Asp to glu; Cys to ser or ala; Gln to asn; Glu to asp; Gly to pro; His to asn or gln; Ile to leu or val; Leu to ile or val; Lys to arg; gln or glu; Met to leu or ile; Phe to met, leu or tyr; Ser to thr; Thr to ser; Trp to tyr; Tyr to trp or phe; and, Val to ile or leu.

Nucleotide sequences of the invention may also be defined by their capability to hybridise with parts of specific nucleotide sequences disclosed herein, respectively, under moderate, or preferably under stringent hybridisation conditions. Stringent hybridisation conditions are herein defined as conditions that allow a nucleic acid sequence of at least about 25, preferably about 50 nucleotides, 75 or 100 and most preferably of about 200 or more nucleotides, to hybridise at a temperature of about 65° C. in a solution comprising about 1 M salt, preferably 6×SSC or any other solution having a comparable ionic strength, and washing at 65° C. in a solution comprising about 0.1 M salt, or less, preferably 0.2×SSC or any other solution having a comparable ionic strength. Preferably, the hybridisation is performed overnight, i.e. at least for 10 hours and preferably washing is performed for at least one hour with at least two changes of the washing solution. These conditions will usually allow the specific hybridisation of sequences having about 90% or more sequence identity.

Moderate conditions are herein defined as conditions that allow a nucleic acid sequences of at least 50 nucleotides, preferably of about 200 or more nucleotides, to hybridise at a temperature of about 45° C. in a solution comprising about 1 M salt, preferably 6×SSC or any other solution having a comparable ionic strength, and washing at room temperature in a solution comprising about 1 M salt, preferably 6×SSC or any other solution having a comparable ionic strength. Preferably, the hybridisation is performed overnight, i.e. at least for 10 hours, and preferably washing is performed for at least one hour with at least two changes of the washing solution. These conditions will usually allow the specific hybridisation of sequences having up to 50% sequence identity. The person skilled in the art will be able to modify these hybridisation conditions in order to specifically identify sequences varying in identity between 50% and 90%.

A “nucleic acid construct” or “nucleic acid vector” is herein understood to mean a man-made nucleic acid molecule resulting from the use of recombinant DNA technology. The term “nucleic acid construct” therefore does not include naturally occurring nucleic acid molecules although a nucleic acid construct may comprise (parts of) naturally occurring nucleic acid molecules. The terms “expression vector” or expression construct” refer to nucleotide sequences that are capable of affecting expression of a gene in host cells or host organisms compatible with such sequences. These expression vectors typically include at least suitable transcription regulatory sequences and optionally, 3′ transcription termination signals. Additional factors necessary or helpful in effecting expression may also be present, such as expression enhancer elements. The expression vector will be introduced into a suitable host cell and be able to effect expression of the coding sequence in an in vitro cell culture of the host cell. The expression vector will be suitable for replication in the host cell or organism of the invention.

As used herein, the term “promoter” or “transcription regulatory sequence” refers to a nucleic acid fragment that functions to control the transcription of one or more coding sequences, and is located upstream with respect to the direction of transcription of the transcription initiation site of the coding sequence, and is structurally identified by the presence of a binding site for DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, transcription initiation sites and any other DNA sequences, including, but not limited to transcription factor binding sites, repressor and activator protein binding sites, and any other sequences of nucleotides known to one of skill in the art to act directly or indirectly to regulate the amount of transcription from the promoter. A “constitutive” promoter is a promoter that is active in most tissues under most physiological and developmental conditions. An “inducible” promoter is a promoter that is physiologically or developmentally regulated, e.g. by the application of a chemical inducer.

The term “selectable marker” is a term familiar to one of ordinary skill in the art and is used herein to describe any genetic entity which, when expressed, can be used to select for a cell or cells containing the selectable marker. The term “reporter” may be used interchangeably with marker, although it is mainly used to refer to visible markers, such as green fluorescent protein (GFP). Selectable markers may be dominant or recessive or bidirectional.

As used herein, the term “operably linked” refers to a linkage of polynucleotide elements in a functional relationship. A nucleic acid is “operably linked” when it is placed into a functional relationship with another nucleic acid sequence. For instance, a transcription regulatory sequence is operably linked to a coding sequence if it affects the transcription of the coding sequence. Operably linked means that the DNA sequences being linked are typically contiguous and, where necessary to join two protein encoding regions, contiguous and in reading frame.

The terms “protein” or “polypeptide” are used interchangeably and refer to molecules consisting of a chain of amino acids, without reference to a specific mode of action, size, 3-dimensional structure or origin.

“Fungi” (singular fungus) are herein understood as heterotrophic eukaryotic microorganism that digest their food externally, absorbing nutrient molecules into their cells. Fungi are a separate kingdom of eukaryotic organisms and include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. The terms fungi, fungus and fungal as used herein thus expressly includes yeasts as well as filamentous fungi.

The term “gene” means a DNA fragment comprising a region (transcribed region), which is transcribed into an RNA molecule (e.g. an mRNA) in a cell, operably linked to suitable regulatory regions (e.g. a promoter). A gene will usually comprise several operably linked fragments, such as a promoter, a 5′ leader sequence, a coding region and a 3′nontranslated sequence (3′end) comprising a polyadenylation site. “Expression of a gene” refers to the process wherein a DNA region which is operably linked to appropriate regulatory regions, particularly a promoter, is transcribed into an RNA, which is biologically active, i.e. which is capable of being translated into a biologically active protein or peptide.

The term “homologous” when used to indicate the relation between a given (recombinant) nucleic acid or polypeptide molecule and a given host organism or host cell, is understood to mean that in nature the nucleic acid or polypeptide molecule is produced by a host cell or organisms of the same species, preferably of the same variety or strain. If homologous to a host cell, a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide will typically (but not necessarily) be operably linked to another (heterologous) promoter sequence and, if applicable, another (heterologous) secretory signal sequence and/or terminator sequence than in its natural environment. It is understood that the regulatory sequences, signal sequences, terminator sequences, etc. may also be homologous to the host cell. In this context, the use of only “homologous” sequence elements allows the construction of “self-cloned” genetically modified organisms (GMO's) (self-cloning is defined herein as in European Directive 98/81/EC Annex II). When used to indicate the relatedness of two nucleic acid sequences the term “homologous” means that one single-stranded nucleic acid sequence may hybridize to a complementary single-stranded nucleic acid sequence. The degree of hybridization may depend on a number of factors including the amount of identity between the sequences and the hybridization conditions such as temperature and salt concentration as discussed later.

The terms “heterologous” and “exogenous” when used with respect to a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) or protein refers to a nucleic acid or protein that does not occur naturally as part of the organism, cell, genome or DNA or RNA sequence in which it is present, or that is found in a cell or location or locations in the genome or DNA or RNA sequence that differ from that in which it is found in nature. Heterologous and exogenous nucleic acids or proteins are not endogenous to the cell into which it is introduced, but have been obtained from another cell or synthetically or recombinantly produced. Generally, though not necessarily, such nucleic acids encode proteins, i.e. exogenous proteins, that are not normally produced by the cell in which the DNA is transcribed or expressed. Similarly exogenous RNA encodes for proteins not normally expressed in the cell in which the exogenous RNA is present. Heterologous/exogenous nucleic acids and proteins may also be referred to as foreign nucleic acids or proteins. Any nucleic acid or protein that one of skill in the art would recognize as foreign to the cell in which it is expressed is herein encompassed by the term heterologous or exogenous nucleic acid or protein. The terms heterologous and exogenous also apply to non-natural combinations of nucleic acid or amino acid sequences, i.e. combinations where at least two of the combined sequences are foreign with respect to each other.

The “specific activity” of an enzyme is herein understood to mean the amount of activity of a particular enzyme per amount of total host cell protein, usually expressed in units of enzyme activity per mg total host cell protein. In the context of the present invention, the specific activity of a particular enzyme may be increased or decreased as compared to the specific activity of that enzyme in an (otherwise identical) wild type host cell.

“Anaerobic conditions” or an anaerobic fermentation process is herein defined as conditions or a fermentation process run in the absence of oxygen or in which substantially no oxygen is consumed, preferably less than 5, 2.5 or 1 mmol/L/h, more preferably 0 mmol/L/h is consumed (i.e. oxygen consumption is not detectable), and wherein organic molecules serve as both electron donor and electron acceptors.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Expression of an exogenous acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in yeast allows the yeast to convert acetic acid, which may be present in high amounts in lignocellulosic hydrolysates, to ethanol. The NADH dependent reduction of acetic acid to ethanol has been proposed as a replacement for glycerol formation as a redox sink in anaerobic glucose-grown cultures of S. cerevisiae, thus providing a stoichiometric basis for elimination of glycerol production (as byproduct) during industrial ethanol production and consequently a higher ethanol yield (Guadalupe et al. supra). However, the stoichiometry of these reactions is such that the reduction of one molecule of acetic acid to ethanol would require two glycerol molecules not being produced. The present inventors have found however, that in practice the amount of acetic acid that typically is present in industrial lignocellulosic hydrolysates is such that the amount of NADH required for it to be reduced to ethanol exceeds the amount of NADH that would become available from preventing glycerol production in yeasts grown under anaerobic conditions. The present inventors have now surprisingly found that much higher amounts of acetic acid can be reduced to ethanol by simultaneous consumption of glycerol by the yeast, rather than by preventing its production.

Large amounts of glycerol are generated as a by-product in biodiesel production from transesterification reactions using vegetable oils or animal fats and an alcohol. The availability of crude glycerol is therefore predicted to increase over the next years as a result of the growth in biodiesel production worldwide. Consequently large amounts of glycerol will be available at low cost. The present invention provides means and methods for valorising glycerol, obtained e.g. as by-product from biodiesel production, by converting it to ethanol that may be used as biofuel. At the same time the present invention addresses the problem of high amounts of acetic acid that are present in lignocellulosic hydrolysates and which inhibit the fermentative capacities of yeasts producing ethanol from these hydrolysates. A further advantage of the present invention is that by leaving the high-osmolarity glycerol response pathway intact in the yeast cells of the invention (as opposed to strains wherein (all) glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase genes are inactivated as described by Guadalupe et al. supra), more robust yeast strains are obtained that are better capable of handling osmotic stress that may occur under industrial fermentations conditions.

In a first aspect the invention relates to a fungal host cell comprising an exogenous gene coding for a enzyme with the ability to reduce acetylCoA into acetaldehyde, which gene confers to the cell the ability to convert acetic acid into ethanol. An enzyme with the ability to reduce acetylCoA into acetaldehyde is herein understood as an enzyme which catalyze the reaction (ACDH; EC 1.2.1.10): acetaldehyde+NAD+Coenzyme A

acetyl-Coenzyme A+NADH+H.

Thus, the enzyme catalyzes the conversion of acetylCoA into acetaldehyde (and vice versa) and is also referred to as an (acetylating NAD-dependent) acetaldehyde dehydrogenase or an acetyl-CoA reductase. The enzyme may be a bifunctional enzyme which further catalyzes the conversion of acetaldehyde into ethanol (and vice versa; see below). For convenience we shall refer herein to an enzyme having at least the ability to reduce acetylCoA into either acetaldehyde or ethanol as an “acetaldehyde dehydrogenase”. It is further understood herein the fungal host cell has endogenous acetyl-CoA synthetase and alcohol dehydrogenase activities which allow the cell, being provided with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity, to complete the conversion of acetic acid into ethanol.

The exogenous gene may encode for a monofunctional enzyme having only acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity (i.e. an enzyme only having the ability to reduce acetylCoA into acetaldehyde) such as e.g. the acetaldehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the E. coli mhpF gene. A suitable exogenous gene coding for an enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity comprises a nucleotide sequence coding for an amino acid sequence with at least 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% amino acid sequence identity with SEQ ID NO: 1. Suitable examples of prokaryotes comprising monofunctional enzymes with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity are provided in Table 1. The amino acid sequences of these monofunctional enzymes are available in public databases and can be used by the skilled person to design codon-optimised nucleotide sequences coding for the corresponding monofunctional enzyme (see e.g. SEQ ID NO: 2).

TABLE 1 Enzymes with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity related to E. coli mhpF Amino acid Organism identity (%) Escherichia coli str. K12 substr. MG1655 100% Shigella sonnei 100% Escherichia coli IAI39  99% Citrobacter youngae ATCC 29220  93% Citrobacter sp. 30_2  92% Klebsiella pneumoniae 342)  87% Klebsiella variicola  87% Pseudomonas putida  81% Ralstonia eutropha JMP134  82% Burkholderia sp. H160  81% Azotobacter vinelandii DJ  79% Ralstonia metallidurans CH34  70% Xanthobacter autotrophicus Py2  67% Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315  68% Frankia sp. EAN1pec  67% Polaromonas sp. JS666  68% Burkholderia phytofirmans PsJN  70% Rhodococcus opacus B4  64%

Preferably, the host cell comprises an exogenous gene coding for a bifunctional enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activity, which gene confers to the cell the ability to covert acetic acid into ethanol. The advantage of using a bifunctional enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activities as opposed to separate enzymes for each of the acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activities, is that it allows for direct channeling of the intermediate between enzymes that catalyze consecutive reactions in a pathway offers the possibility of an efficient, exclusive, and protected means of metabolite delivery. Substrate channeling thus decreases transit time of intermediates, prevents loss of intermediates by diffusion, protects labile intermediates from solvent, and forestalls entrance of intermediates into competing metabolic pathways. The bifunctional enzyme therefore allows for a more efficient conversion of acetic acid into ethanol as compared to the separate acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes. A further advantage of using the bifunctional enzyme is that it may also be used in host cells having little or no alcohol dehydrogenase activity under the condition used, such as e.g. anaerobic conditions and/or conditions of catabolite repression.

Bifunctional enzymes with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activity are known in the art prokaryotes and protozoans, including e.g. the bifunctional enzymes encoded by the Escherichia coli adhE and Entamoeba histolytica ADH2 genes (see e.g. Bruchaus and Tannich, 1994, J. Biochem. 303: 743-748; Burdette and Zeikus, 1994, J. Biochem. 302: 163-170; Koo et al., 2005, Biotechnol. Lett. 27: 505-510; Yong et al., 1996, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 93: 6464-6469). Bifunctional enzymes with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activity are larger proteins consisting of around 900 amino acids and they are bifunctional in that they exhibit both acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ACDH; EC 1.2.1.10) and alcohol dehydrogenase activity (ADH; EC 1.1.1.1). The E. coli adhE and Entamoeba histolytica ADH2 show 45% amino acid identity. Therefore, in one embodiment of the invention, a suitable exogenous gene coding for a bifunctional enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activity comprises a nucleotide sequence coding for an amino acid sequence with at least 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% amino acid sequence identity with at least one of SEQ ID NO: 3 and 5. Suitable examples of prokaryotes comprising bifunctional enzymes with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activity are provided in Tables 2 and 3. The amino acid sequences of these bifunctional enzymes are available in public databases and can be used by the skilled person to design codon-optimised nucleotide sequences coding for the corresponding bifunctional enzyme (see e.g. SEQ ID NO: 4 or 6).

TABLE 2 Bifunctional enzymes with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activity related to E. coli adhE Amino acid Organism identity (%) Escherichia coli O157:H7 str. Sakai 100% Shigella sonnei 100% Shigella dysenteriae 1012  99% Klebsiella pneumoniae 342  97% Enterobacter sp. 638  94% Yersinia pestis biovar Microtus str. 91001  90% Serratia proteamaculans 568  90% Pectobacterium carotovorum WPP14  90% Sodalis glossinidius str. ′morsitans′  87% Erwinia tasmaniensis Et1/99  86% Aeromonas hydrophila ATCC 7966  81% Vibrio vulnificus YJO16]  76%

TABLE 3 Bifunctional enzymes with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activity related to Entamoeba histolytica ADH2 Amino acid Organism identity (%) Entamoeba histolytica HM-1:IMSS 99% Entamoeba dispar SAW760 98% Mollicutes bacterium D7 65% Fusobacterium mortiferum ATCC 9817 64% Actinobacillus succinogenes 130Z 63% Pasteurella multocida Pm70 62% Mannheimia succiniciproducens MBEL55E 61% Streptococcus sp. 2_1_36FAA] 61%

The exogenous gene coding for the bifunctional enzyme having acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activities, for an enzyme having acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity, preferably is an expression construct comprising a nucleotide sequence coding for the enzyme operably linked to suitable expression regulatory regions/sequences to ensure expression of the enzyme upon transformation of the expression construct into the host cell of the invention. Thus, the gene or expression construct will at least comprise a promoter that is functional in the host cell operably linked to the coding sequence. The gene or construct may further comprise a 5′ leader sequence upstream of the coding region and a 3′-nontranslated sequence (3′end) comprising a polyadenylation site and a transcription termination site downstream of the coding sequence.

In one aspect the invention relates to methods for preparing or constructing the yeast cells of the invention. For this purpose standard genetic and molecular biology techniques are used that are generally known in the art and have e.g. been described by Sambrook and Russell (2001, “Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual” (3rd edition), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press) and Ausubel et al. (1987, eds., “Current protocols in molecular biology”, Green Publishing and Wiley Interscience, New York). Furthermore, the construction of mutated host yeast strains is carried out by genetic crosses, sporulation of the resulting diploids, tetrad dissection of the haploid spores containing the desired auxotrophic markers, and colony purification of such haploid host yeasts in the appropriate selection medium. All of these methods are standard yeast genetic methods known to those in the art. See, for example, Sherman et al., Methods Yeast Genetics, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, NY (1978) and Guthrie et al. (Eds.) Guide To Yeast Genetics and Molecular Biology Vol. 194, Academic Press, San Diego (1991).

Suitable promoters for expression of the nucleotide sequence coding for the enzyme having acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and optionally alcohol dehydrogenase activity (as well as other enzymes of the invention; see below) include promoters that are preferably insensitive to catabolite (glucose) repression, that are active under anaerobic conditions and/or that preferably do not require xylose or arabinose for induction. Promoters having these characteristics are widely available and known to the skilled person. Suitable examples of such promoters include e.g. promoters from glycolytic genes such as the phosphofructokinase (PPK), triose phosphate isomerase (TPI), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GDP, TDH3 or GAPDH), pyruvate kinase (PYK), phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK), glucose-6-phosphate isomerase promoter (PGI1) promoters from yeasts. More details about such promoters from yeast may be found in (WO 93/03159). Other useful promoters are ribosomal protein encoding gene promoters (TEF1), the lactase gene promoter (LAC4), alcohol dehydrogenase promoters (ADH1, ADH4, and the like), the enolase promoter (ENO) and the hexose (glucose) transporter promoter (HXT7). Alternatively, the nucleotide sequence encoding the enzyme having acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and optionally alcohol dehydrogenase activity is overexpressed under anaerobic conditions by using an anoxic promoter such as e.g. the S. cerevisiae ANB1 promoter (SEQ ID NO: 19). Other promoters, both constitutive and inducible, and enhancers or upstream activating sequences will be known to those of skill in the art. Preferably the promoter that is operably linked to nucleotide sequence as defined above is homologous to the host cell. Suitable terminator sequences are e.g. obtainable from the cytochrome c1 (CYC1) gene or an alcohol dehydrogenase gene (e.g. ADH1).

To increase the likelihood that the enzyme having acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and optionally alcohol dehydrogenase activities is expressed at sufficient levels and in active form in the transformed host cells of the invention, the nucleotide sequence encoding these enzymes, as well as other enzymes of the invention (see below), are preferably adapted to optimise their codon usage to that of the host cell in question. The adaptiveness of a nucleotide sequence encoding an enzyme to the codon usage of a host cell may be expressed as codon adaptation index (CAI). The codon adaptation index is herein defined as a measurement of the relative adaptiveness of the codon usage of a gene towards the codon usage of highly expressed genes in a particular host cell or organism. The relative adaptiveness (w) of each codon is the ratio of the usage of each codon, to that of the most abundant codon for the same amino acid. The CAI index is defined as the geometric mean of these relative adaptiveness values. Non-synonymous codons and termination codons (dependent on genetic code) are excluded. CAI values range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating a higher proportion of the most abundant codons (see Sharp and Li, 1987, Nucleic Acids Research 15: 1281-1295; also see: Jansen et al., 2003, Nucleic Acids Res. 31(8):2242-51). An adapted nucleotide sequence preferably has a CAI of at least 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 or 0.9. Most preferred are the sequences which have been codon optimised for expression in the fungal host cell in question such as e.g. S. cerevisiae cells.

The nucleotide sequence encodes an enzyme having acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and optionally alcohol dehydrogenase activities that is preferably expressed in active form in the transformed host cell. Thus, expression of the nucleotide sequence in the host cell produces an acetaldehyde dehydrogenase with a specific activity of at least 0.005, 0.010, 0.020, 0.050 or 0.10 μmol min⁻¹ (mg protein)⁻¹, determined as acetyl-CoA dependent rate of NADH reduction in cell extracts of the transformed host cell at 30° C. as described in the Examples herein.

The host cell to be transformed with a nucleic acid construct comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and optionally alcohol dehydrogenase preferably is a yeast host cell. Preferably the host cell is a cultured cell. The host cell of the invention, preferably is a host capable of active or passive pentose (xylose and preferably also arabinose) transport into the cell. The host cell preferably contains active glycolysis. The host cell may further preferably contains an endogenous pentose phosphate pathway and may contain endogenous xylulose kinase activity so that xylulose isomerised from xylose may be metabolised to pyruvate. The host further preferably contains enzymes for conversion of a pentose (preferably through pyruvate) to a desired fermentation product such as ethanol, lactic acid, 3-hydroxy-propionic acid, acrylic acid, 1,3-propane-diol, butanols (1-butanol, 2-butanol, isobutanol) and isoprenoid-derived products. A particularly preferred host cell is a yeast cell that is naturally capable of alcoholic fermentation, preferably, anaerobic alcoholic fermentation. The yeast host cell further preferably has a high tolerance to ethanol, a high tolerance to low pH (i.e. capable of growth at a pH lower than 5, 4, or 3) and towards organic acids like lactic acid, acetic acid or formic acid and sugar degradation products such as furfural and hydroxy-methylfurfural, and a high tolerance to elevated temperatures. Any of these characteristics or activities of the host cell may be naturally present in the host cell or may be introduced or modified by genetic modification, preferably by self cloning or by the methods of the invention described below. A suitable cell is a cultured cell, a cell that may be cultured in fermentation process e.g. in submerged or solid state fermentation. Particularly suitable cells are eukaryotic microorganism like e.g. fungi, however, most suitable for use in the present inventions are yeasts.

Yeasts are herein defined as eukaryotic microorganisms and include all species of the subdivision Eumycotina (Yeasts: characteristics and identification, J. A. Barnett, R. W. Payne, D. Yarrow, 2000, 3rd ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK; and, The yeasts, a taxonomic study, C. P. Kurtzman and J. W. Fell (eds) 1998, 4^(th) ed., Elsevier Science Publ. B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands) that predominantly grow in unicellular form. Yeasts may either grow by budding of a unicellular thallus or may grow by fission of the organism. Preferred yeasts cells for use in the present invention belong to the genera Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Candida, Pichia, chizosaccharomyces, Hansenula, Kloeckera, Schwanniomyces, and Yarrowia. Preferably the yeast is capable of anaerobic fermentation, more preferably anaerobic alcoholic fermentation. Over the years suggestions have been made for the introduction of various organisms for the production of bio-ethanol from crop sugars. In practice, however, all major bio-ethanol production processes have continued to use the yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces as ethanol producer. This is due to the many attractive features of Saccharomyces species for industrial processes, i.e., a high acid-, ethanol- and osmo-tolerance, capability of anaerobic growth, and of course its high alcoholic fermentative capacity. Preferred yeast species as host cells include S. cerevisiae, S. exiguus, S. bayanus, K. lactis, K. marxianus and Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

In a further embodiment, the host cell of the invention further comprises a genetic modification that introduces NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase activity in the cell. The glycerol dehydrogenase encoded by the endogenous yeast GCY1 gene appears to be specific for the cofactor NADP⁺ (EC 1.1.1.72) as opposed to NAD⁺ (EC 1.1.1.6). Yeasts such as S. cerevisiae appear to lack NAD⁺-dependent glycerol dehydrogenase activity (EC 1.1.1.6) (see e.g. KEGG pathway 00561). An NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase is herein understood as an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction (EC 1.1.1.6): glycerol+NAD

glycerone+NADH+H⁺

Other names in common use include glycerin dehydrogenase and glycerol:NAD+2-oxidoreductase.

Preferably the genetic modification that introduces NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase activity in the host cell is the expression of an NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase that is heterologous to the host cell. More preferably, the nucleotide sequence for expression of a heterologous glycerol dehydrogenase in the cells of the invention is a sequence encoding a bacterial glycerol dehydrogenase which use NAD as cofactor (EC 1.1.1.6). A suitable example of a bacterial NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase for expression in a host cell of the invention is e.g. the gldA gene from E. coli described by Truniger and Boos (1994, J Bacteriol. 176(6):1796-1800), the expression of which in yeast has already been reported (Lee and Dasilva, 2006, Metab Eng. 8(1):58-65). Preferably, the nucleotide sequence encoding a heterologous glycerol dehydrogenase comprises a nucleotide sequence coding for an amino acid sequence with at least 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% amino acid sequence identity with SEQ ID NO: 7 or a nucleotide sequence coding for an amino acid sequence having one or several substitutions, insertions and/or deletions as compared to SEQ ID NO: 7. In a preferred embodiment a codon-optimised (see above) nucleotide sequence encoding the heterologous glycerol dehydrogenase is overexpressed, such as e.g. a codon-optimised nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of the glycerol dehydrogenase of SEQ ID NO: 7. Such a codon-optimised nucleotide sequence is e.g. provided in SEQ ID NO: 21 (positions 10-1113; CAI=0.976).

For overexpression of the nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol dehydrogenase, the nucleotide sequence (to be overexpressed) is placed in an expression construct wherein it is operably linked to suitable expression regulatory regions/sequences to ensure overexpression of the glycerol dehydrogenase enzyme upon transformation of the expression construct into the host cell of the invention (see above). Suitable promoters for (over)expression of the nucleotide sequence coding for the enzyme having glycerol dehydrogenase activity include promoters that are preferably insensitive to catabolite (glucose) repression, that are active under anaerobic conditions and/or that preferably do not require xylose or arabinose for induction. Examples of such promoters are given above. Expression of the nucleotide sequence in the host cell produces a specific NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase activity of at least 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, or 5.0 U min⁻¹ (mg protein)⁻¹, determined in cell extracts of the transformed host cells at 30° C. as described in the Examples herein.

In a further embodiment, the host cell of the invention further comprises a genetic modification that increases the specific activity of dihydroxyacetone kinase in the cell. Transcriptome data has shown that the endogenous DAK1 dihydroxyacetone kinase is already expressed at high levels in S. cerevisiae. A further increase of dihydroxyacetone kinase activity in the cells of the invention may therefore not be strictly necessary. However, in a preferred, embodiment, for optimal conversion rates, the host cell of the invention thus comprises a genetic modification that increases the specific activity of dihydroxyacetone kinase in the cell. A dihydroxyacetone kinase is herein understood as an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction ((EC 2.7.1.29): ATP+glycerone

ADP+glycerone phosphate

Other names in common use include glycerone kinase, ATP:glycerone phosphotransferase and (phosphorylating) acetol kinase. It is understood that glycerone and dihydroxyacetone are the same molecule. Preferably the genetic modification causes overexpression of a dihydroxyacetone kinase, e.g. by overexpression of a nucleotide sequence encoding a dihydroxyacetone kinase. The nucleotide sequence encoding the dihydroxyacetone kinase may be endogenous to the cell or may be a dihydroxyacetone kinase that is heterologous to the cell. Nucleotide sequences that may be used for overexpression of dihydroxyacetone kinase in the cells of the invention are e.g. the dihydroxyacetone kinase genes from S. cerevisiae (DAK1) and (DAK2) as e.g. described by Molin et al. (2003, J. Biol. Chem. 278:1415-1423). Preferably, the nucleotide sequence encoding the dihydroxyacetone kinase comprises an amino acid sequence with at least 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% amino acid sequence identity with at least one of SEQ ID NO's: 8 and 9. In a preferred embodiment a codon-optimised (see above) nucleotide sequence encoding the dihydroxyacetone kinase is overexpressed, such as e.g. a codon optimised nucleotide sequence encoding the dihydroxyacetone kinase of SEQ ID NO: 8 or a codon optimised nucleotide sequence encoding the dihydroxyacetone kinase of SEQ ID NO: 9. A preferred nucleotide sequence for overexpression of a dihydroxyacetone kinase is a nucleotide sequence encoding a dihydroxyacetone kinase comprises an amino acid sequence with at least 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% amino acid sequence identity with at least one of SEQ ID NO's: 8 (S. cerevisiae (DAK1) or having one or several substitutions, insertions and/or deletions as compared to SEQ ID NO: 8.

Nucleotide sequences that may be used for overexpression of a heterologous dihydroxyacetone kinase in the cells of the invention are e.g. sequences encoding bacterial dihydroxyacetone kinases such as the dhaK gene from Citrobacter freundii e.g. described by Daniel et al. (1995, J. Bacteriol. 177:4392-4401). Preferably, the nucleotide sequence encoding a heterologous dihydroxyacetone kinase comprises a nucleotide sequence coding for an amino acid sequence with at least 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% amino acid sequence identity with SEQ ID NO: 25 or a nucleotide sequence coding for an amino acid sequence having one or several substitutions, insertions and/or deletions as compared to SEQ ID NO: 25. In a preferred embodiment a codon-optimised (see above) nucleotide sequence encoding the heterologous dihydroxyacetone kinase is overexpressed, such as e.g. a codon optimised nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of the dihydroxyacetone kinase of SEQ ID NO: 25. Such a codon-optimised nucleotide sequence is e.g. provided in SEQ ID NO: 26 (positions 10-1668).

For overexpression of the nucleotide sequence encoding the dihydroxyacetone kinase, the nucleotide sequence (to be overexpressed) is placed in an expression construct wherein it is operably linked to suitable expression regulatory regions/sequences to ensure overexpression of the dihydroxyacetone kinase enzyme upon transformation of the expression construct into the host cell of the invention (see above). Suitable promoters for (over)expression of the nucleotide sequence coding for the enzyme having dihydroxyacetone kinase activity include promoters that are preferably insensitive to catabolite (glucose) repression, that are active under anaerobic conditions and/or that preferably do not require xylose or arabinose for induction. Examples of such promoters are given above. In the cells of the invention, a dihydroxyacetone kinase to be overexpressed is preferably overexpressed by at least a factor 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 2, 5, 10 or 20 as compared to a strain which is genetically identical except for the genetic modification causing the overexpression. Preferably, the dihydroxyacetone kinase is overexpressed under anaerobic conditions by at least a factor 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 2, 5, 10 or 20 as compared to a strain which is genetically identical except for the genetic modification causing the overexpression. It is to be understood that these levels of overexpression may apply to the steady state level of the enzyme's activity (specific activity in the cell), the steady state level of the enzyme's protein as well as to the steady state level of the transcript coding for the enzyme in the cell. Overexpression of the nucleotide sequence in the host cell produces a specific dihydroxyacetone kinase activity of at least 0.002, 0.005, 0.01, 0.02 or 0.05 U min⁻¹ (mg protein)⁻¹, determined in cell extracts of the transformed host cells at 30° C. as described in the Examples herein.

In a further embodiment, the host cell of the invention further comprises a genetic modification that increases transport of glycerol into the cell. Preferably, the genetic modification that increases transport of glycerol into the cell preferably is a genetic modification that causes overexpression of a nucleotide sequence encoding at least one of a glycerol uptake protein and a glycerol channel.

A glycerol uptake protein is herein understood as a multimembrane-spanning protein that belongs to the included in the membrane bound O-acyltransferases (MBOAT) superfamily including e.g. the S. cerevisiae glycerol uptake proteins encoded by the GUP1 and GUP2 genes. Preferably the genetic modification causes overexpression of a glycerol uptake protein, e.g. by overexpression of a nucleotide sequence encoding a glycerol uptake protein. The nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol uptake protein may be endogenous to the cell or may be a glycerol uptake protein that is heterologous to the cell. Nucleotide sequences that may be used for overexpression of glycerol uptake protein in the cells of the invention are e.g. the glycerol uptake protein genes from S. cerevisiae (GUP1) and (GUP2) and orthologues thereof as e.g. described by Neves et al. (2004, FEMS Yeast Res. 5:51-62). Preferably, the nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol uptake protein comprises a nucleotide sequence coding for an amino acid sequence with at least 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% amino acid sequence identity with at least one of SEQ ID NO's: 10 (Gup1p) and 11 (Gup2p). In a preferred embodiment a codon-optimised (see above) nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol uptake protein is overexpressed, such as e.g. a codon optimised nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol uptake protein SEQ ID NO: 10 or a codon optimised nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol uptake protein of SEQ ID NO: 11. Although the exact nature of the influence of GUP1 on glycerol transport is not yet clear, Yu et al. (2010, supra) have shown that overexpression of GUP1 in S. cerevisiae improves ethanol production on glycerol grown cells. A preferred nucleotide sequence for overexpression of a glycerol uptake protein is therefore a nucleotide sequence encoding a glycerol uptake protein that is capable of rescuing salt stress-associated phenotype of a S. cerevisiae gup1Δ mutant by complementation as described by Neves et al. (2004, supra). Such complementing orthologues of S. cerevisiae GUP1 include nucleotide sequences encoding amino acid sequences having at least 60, 68, 72, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10 and may be obtained from yeast species belonging to the genera of Saccharomyces, Zygosaccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Candida, Pichia, Hansenula, Kloeckera, Schwanniomyces, and Yarrowia.

A glycerol channel is herein understood as a member of the MIP family of channel proteins reviewed by Reizer et al. (1993, CRC Crit. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol., 28: 235-257), which channel proteins comprise a 250-280 amino acid transmembrane domain consisting of six membrane-spanning domains and have at least 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 98 or 99% amino acid identity, or at least 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90, 95, 98 or 99% amino acid similarity with the amino acid sequence between amino acids 250 and 530 of SEQ ID NO: 12, the S. cerevisiae FPS1 aquaglyceroporin. Nucleotide sequences that may be used for overexpression of a glycerol channel in the cells of the invention include nucleotide sequences encoding the yeast aquaglyceroporin FPS1 gene from e.g. S. cerevisiae (Van Aelst et al., 1991, EMBO J. 10:2095-2104) and orthologues thereof from other yeasts including Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces marxianus and Zygosaccharomyces rouxii as e.g. described by Neves et al. (2004, supra). However, the use of bacterial or plant glycerol channels is not excluded as e.g. Luyten et al. (1995, EMBO J. 14:1360-1371) have shown that the E. coli glycerol facilitator, having only 30% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence between amino acids 250 and 530 of the S. cerevisiae FPS1 aquaglyceroporin, can complement glycerol uptake in a S. cerevisiae fps1Δ mutant. The nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol channel may be endogenous to the cell or may be a glycerol channel that is heterologous to the cell. In a preferred embodiment a codon-optimised (see above) nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol channel is overexpressed, such as e.g. a codon optimised nucleotide sequence encoding the aquaglyceroporin of SEQ ID NO: 12.

For overexpression of the nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol uptake protein and/or the glycerol channel protein, the nucleotide sequence (to be overexpressed) is placed in an expression construct wherein it is operably linked to suitable expression regulatory regions/sequences to ensure overexpression of the glycerol uptake protein and/or the glycerol channel protein upon transformation of the expression construct into the host cell of the invention (see above). Suitable promoters for (over)expression of the nucleotide sequence coding for the glycerol uptake protein and/or the glycerol channel protein include promoters that are preferably insensitive to catabolite (glucose) repression, that are active under anaerobic conditions and/or that preferably do not require xylose or arabinose for induction. Examples of such promoters are given above. In the cells of the invention, a glycerol uptake protein and/or a glycerol channel protein to be overexpressed are preferably overexpressed by at least a factor 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 2, 5, 10 or 20 as compared to a strain which is genetically identical except for the genetic modification causing the overexpression. Preferably, the glycerol uptake protein and/or the glycerol channel protein are overexpressed under anaerobic conditions by at least a factor 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 2, 5, 10 or 20 as compared to a strain which is genetically identical except for the genetic modification causing the overexpression. It is to be understood that these levels of overexpression may apply to the steady state level of the enzyme's activity (specific activity in the cell), the steady state level of the enzyme's protein as well as to the steady state level of the transcript coding for the enzyme in the cell.

In a preferred embodiment of the host cell of the invention, the expression of the glycerol channel protein as defined above is reduced or inactivated. A genetic modification reducing or inactivating the expression of the glycerol channel protein may be useful to reduce or prevent transport of glycerol out of the cell. Preferably, the reduction or inactivation of the expression of the glycerol channel protein is combined with overexpression of the nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol uptake protein as defined above.

In a further embodiment, the host cell of the invention further comprises a genetic modification that increases the specific acetyl-CoA synthetase activity in the cell, preferably under anaerobic conditions as this activity is rate-limiting under these conditions. Acetyl-CoA synthetase or acetate-CoA ligase (EC 6.2.1.1) is herein understood as an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of a new chemical bond between acetate and coenzyme A (CoA). Preferably the genetic modification causes overexpression of a acetyl-CoA synthetase, e.g. by overexpression of a nucleotide sequence encoding a acetyl-CoA synthetase. The nucleotide sequence encoding the acetyl-CoA synthetase may be endogenous to the cell or may be a acetyl-CoA synthetase that is heterologous to the cell. Nucleotide sequences that may be used for overexpression of acetyl-CoA synthetase in the cells of the invention are e.g. the acetyl-CoA synthetase genes from S. cerevisiae (ACS1 and ACS2) as e.g. described by de Jong-Gubbels et al. (1998, FEMS Microbiol Lett. 165: 15-20). Preferably, the nucleotide sequence encoding the acetyl-CoA synthetase comprises an amino acid sequence with at least 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99% amino acid sequence identity with at least one of SEQ ID NO's: 13 and 14.

In one embodiment, the nucleotide sequence that is overexpressed encodes an acetyl-CoA synthetase with a high affinity for acetate. Use of an acetyl-CoA synthetase with a high affinity for acetate is preferred for conditions under which there is a relatively low concentration of acetic acid in the culture medium, e.g. no more than 2 g acetic acid/L culture medium. An acetyl-CoA synthetase with a high affinity for acetate is herein defined as an acetyl-CoA synthetase with a higher affinity for acetate than the acetyl-CoA synthetase encoded by the S. cerevisiae ACS2. Preferably, an acetyl-CoA synthetase with a high affinity for acetate has a Km for acetate of no more than 10, 5, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.2 or 0.1 mM, such e.g. the acetyl-CoA synthetase encoded by the S. cerevisiae ACS1 gene. More preferably a codon-optimised (see above) nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 13 is overexpressed.

In another embodiment, the nucleotide sequence that is overexpressed encodes an acetyl-CoA synthetase with a high maximum rate (v_(max)). Use of an acetyl-CoA synthetase with a high maximum rate is preferred for condition under which there is a relatively high concentration of acetic acid in the culture medium, e.g. at least 2, 3, 4 or 5 g acetic acid/L culture medium. An acetyl-CoA synthetase with a high maximum rate is herein defined as an acetyl-CoA synthetase with a higher maximum rate than the acetyl-CoA synthetase encoded by the S. cerevisiae ACS1. Preferably, the acetyl-CoA synthetase with a high maximum rate is the acetyl-CoA synthetase encoded by the S. cerevisiae ACS2 gene. More preferably a codon-optimised (see above) nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14 is overexpressed.

For overexpression of the nucleotide sequence encoding the acetyl-CoA synthetase (to be overexpressed) is placed in an expression construct wherein it is operably linked to suitable expression regulatory regions/sequences to ensure overexpression of the acetyl-CoA synthetase enzyme upon transformation of the expression construct into the host cell of the invention (see above). Suitable promoters for (over)expression of the nucleotide sequence coding for the enzyme having acetyl-CoA synthetase activity include promoters that are preferably insensitive to catabolite (glucose) repression, that are active under anaerobic conditions and/or that preferably do not require xylose or arabinose for induction. Examples of such promoters are given above. In the cells of the invention, an acetyl-CoA synthetase to be overexpressed is overexpressed by at least a factor 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 2, 5, 10 or 20 as compared to a strain which is genetically identical except for the genetic modification causing the overexpression. Preferably, the acetyl-CoA synthetase is overexpressed under anaerobic conditions by at least a factor 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, or 100 as compared to a strain which is genetically identical except for the genetic modification causing the overexpression. It is to be understood that these levels of overexpression may apply to the steady state level of the enzyme's activity (specific activity), the steady state level of the enzyme's protein as well as to the steady state level of the transcript coding for the enzyme.

In a further embodiment, the host cell of the invention further comprises a genetic modification that reduces specific NAD⁺-dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in the cell. Glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase or glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.8) katalyses the reduction of dihydroxyacetone phosphate to sn-glycerol 3-phosphate while oxidising NADH to NAD⁺. In the cells of the invention, the specific glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase activity is preferably reduced by at least a factor 0.8, 0.5, 0.3, 0.1, 0.05 or 0.01 as compared to a strain which is genetically identical except for the genetic modification causing the overexpression, preferably under anaerobic conditions.

Preferably, glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase activity is reduced in the host cell by one or more genetic modifications that reduce the expression of or inactivates a gene encoding an glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase. Preferably, the genetic modifications reduce or inactivate the expression of each endogenous copy of the gene encoding a specific glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase in the cell's genome. A given cell may comprise multiple copies of the gene encoding a specific glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase with one and the same amino acid sequence as a result of di-, poly- or aneu-ploidy. In such instances preferably the expression of each copy of the specific gene that encodes the glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase is reduced or inactivated. Alternatively, a cell may contain several different (iso)enzymes with glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase activity that differ in amino acid sequence and that are each encoded by a different gene. In such instances, in some embodiments of the invention it is preferred that only certain types of the isoenzymes are reduced or inactivated while other types remain unaffected (see below). Preferably, the gene is inactivated by deletion of at least part of the gene or by disruption of the gene, whereby in this context the term gene also includes any non-coding sequence up- or down-stream of the coding sequence, the (partial) deletion or inactivation of which results in a reduction of expression of glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase activity in the host cell.

A preferred gene encoding a glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase whose activity is to be reduced or inactivated in the cell of the invention is the S. cerevisiae GPD2 gene as described by Eriksson et al. (1995, Mol. Microbiol. 17: 95-107), encoding the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 15 and orthologues thereof in other species. Therefore a gene encoding a glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase whose activity is to be reduced or inactivated in the cell of the invention preferably is a gene encoding a glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase having an amino acid sequence with at least 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98 or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 15.

In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the host cell of the invention comprises a functional high-osmolarity glycerol response pathway. Preferably therefore, only the activity of the gene(s) encoding a glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase having an amino acid sequence with at least 70% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 15 are reduced or inactivated, while at least one endogenous gene encoding a glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase having an amino acid sequence with at least 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98 or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 16 is functional. SEQ ID NO: 16 depicts the amino acid sequence encoded by the S. cerevisiae GPD1 gene as described by Albertyn et al. (1994, Mol. Cell. Biol. 14: 4135-4144), which has 69% amino acid identity with the S. cerevisiae GPD2 glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase. The S. cerevisiae GPD1 gene is the stress-induced glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase of S. cerevisiae, which is important for growth under osmotic stress as may occur under industrial fermentations conditions. Its expression is inter alia regulated by the high-osmolarity glycerol response pathway. It is therefore advantageous that a host cell of the invention has at least one functional copy of a endogenous gene encoding a glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase having an amino acid sequence with at least 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98 or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 16.

Notwithstanding the above, the inventors have now surprisingly found that inactivation of the S. cerevisiae GPD1 glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase has a more advantageous effect on the reduction of glycerol production and the increase of glycerol and acetate consumption as compared to inactivation of the S. cerevisiae GPD2 glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase. Therefore, in a more preferred embodiment, the host cell of the invention comprises a genetic modification that reduces or inactivates the expression of at least the gene(s) encoding a glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase having an amino acid sequence with at least 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98 or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 16 (GPD1).

In a further embodiment, the activity of all the genes in the host cell encoding a glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase is reduced or inactivated. In such cells preferably all copies of endogenous genes encoding a glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase having an amino acid sequence with at least 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98 or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 15 or 16 are inactivated or at least reduced in expression.

In another embodiment of the invention, the host cell is not a yeast cell comprising an exogenous gene coding for a enzyme with the ability to convert pyruvate and coenzyme-A into formate and acetyl-CoA. Preferably the host cell is not a yeast cell comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a pyruvate formate lyase.

In yet another embodiment of the invention, the host cell is a host cell wherein the specific formate dehydrogenase activity is at least 81, 85, 90, 95, or 100% of the specific formate dehydrogenase activity in a strain of the host cell which is genetically identical except for a genetic modification selected from the group consisting of: a) (the introduction of) an exogenous gene coding for an enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity, which gene confers to the cell the ability to convert acetic acid into ethanol; b) (the introduction of) a bacterial gene coding for an enzyme with NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase activity; and c) any of the other genetic modifications described herein above. Thus, a preferred host cell of the invention is not a yeast cell comprising a genetic modification that reduces specific NAD⁺-dependent formate dehydrogenase activity in the cell.

In a further preferred embodiment, the host cell of the invention has at least one of: a) the ability of isomerising xylose to xylulose; and, b) the ability to convert L-arabinose into D-xylulose 5-phosphate. For a) the cell preferably has a functional exogenous xylose isomerase gene, which gene confers to the cell the ability to isomerise xylose into xylulose. For b) the cell preferably has functional exogenous genes coding for a L-arabinose isomerase, a L-ribulokinase and a L-ribulose-5-phosphate 4-epimerase, which genes together confers to the cell the ability to isomerise convert L-arabinose into D-xylulose 5-phosphate.

Fungal host cells having the ability of isomerising xylose to xylulose as e.g. described in WO 03/0624430 and in WO 06/009434. The ability of isomerising xylose to xylulose is preferably conferred to the cell by transformation with a nucleic acid construct comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a xylose isomerase. Preferably the cell thus acquires the ability to directly isomerise xylose into xylulose. More preferably the cell thus acquires the ability to grow aerobically and/or anaerobically on xylose as sole energy and/or carbon source though direct isomerisation of xylose into xylulose (and further metabolism of xylulose). It is herein understood that the direct isomerisation of xylose into xylulose occurs in a single reaction catalysed by a xylose isomerase, as opposed to the two step conversion of xylose into xylulose via a xylitol intermediate as catalysed by xylose reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase, respectively.

Several xylose isomerases (and their amino acid and coding nucleotide sequences) that may be successfully used to confer to the cell of the invention the ability to directly isomerise xylose into xylulose have been described in the art. These include the xylose isomerases of Piromyces sp. and of other anaerobic fungi that belongs to the families Neocallimastix, Caecomyces, Piromyces or Ruminomyces (WO 03/0624430), Cyllamyces aberensis (US 20060234364), Orpinomyces (Madhavan et al., 2008, DOI 10.1007/s00253-008-1794-6), the xylose isomerase of the bacterial genus Bacteroides, including e.g. B. thetaiotaomicron (WO 06/009434), B. fragilis, and B. uniformis (WO 09/109633), the xylose isomerase of the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium phytofermentans (Brat et al., 2009, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75: 2304-2311), and the xylose isomerases of Clostridium difficile, Ciona intestinales and Fusobacterium mortiferum.

Fungal host cells having the ability to convert L-arabinose into D-xylulose 5-phosphate as e.g. described in Wisselink et al. (2007, AEM Accepts, published online ahead of print on 1 Jun. 2007; Appl. Environ. Microbiol. doi:10.1128/AEM.00177-07) and in EP 1 499 708. The ability of to converting L-arabinose into D-xylulose 5-phosphate is preferably conferred to the cell by transformation with a nucleic acid construct(s) comprising nucleotide sequences encoding a) an arabinose isomerase; b) a ribulokinase, preferably a L-ribulokinase a xylose isomerase; and c) a ribulose-5-P-4-epimerase, preferably a L-ribulose-5-P-4-epimerase. Preferably, in the cells of the invention, the ability to convert L-arabinose into D-xylulose 5-phosphate is the ability to convert L-arabinose into D-xylulose 5-phosphate through the subsequent reactions of 1) isomerisation of arabinose into ribulose; 2) phosphorylation of ribulose to ribulose 5-phosphate; and, 3) epimerisation of ribulose 5-phosphate into D-xylulose 5-phosphate. Suitable nucleotide sequences encoding arabinose isomerases, a ribulokinases and ribulose-5-P-4-epimerases may be obtained from Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli (see e.g. EP 1 499 708), Lactobacilli, e.g. Lactobacillus plantarum (see e.g. Wisselink et al. supra), or species of Clavibacter, Arthrobacter and Gramella, of which preferably Clavibacter michiganensis, Arthrobacter aurescens and Gramella forsetii (see WO2009/011591).

The transformed host cell of the invention further preferably comprises xylulose kinase activity so that xylulose isomerised from xylose may be metabolised to pyruvate. Preferably, the cell contains endogenous xylulose kinase activity. More preferably, a cell of the invention comprises a genetic modification that increases the specific xylulose kinase activity. Preferably the genetic modification causes overexpression of a xylulose kinase, e.g. by overexpression of a nucleotide sequence encoding a xylulose kinase. The gene encoding the xylulose kinase may be endogenous to the cell or may be a xylulose kinase that is heterologous to the cell. A nucleotide sequence that may be used for overexpression of xylulose kinase in the cells of the invention is e.g. the xylulose kinase gene from S. cerevisiae (XKS1) as described by Deng and Ho (1990, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 24-25: 193-199). Another preferred xylulose kinase is a xylose kinase that is related to the xylulose kinase from Piromyces (xylB; see WO 03/0624430). This Piromyces xylulose kinase is actually more related to prokaryotic kinase than to all of the known eukaryotic kinases such as the yeast kinase. The eukaryotic xylulose kinases have been indicated as non-specific sugar kinases, which have a broad substrate range that includes xylulose. In contrast, the prokaryotic xylulose kinases, to which the Piromyces kinase is most closely related, have been indicated to be more specific kinases for xylulose, i.e. having a narrower substrate range. In the cells of the invention, a xylulose kinase to be overexpressed is overexpressed by at least a factor 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 2, 5, 10 or 20 as compared to a strain which is genetically identical except for the genetic modification causing the overexpression. It is to be understood that these levels of overexpression may apply to the steady state level of the enzyme's activity, the steady state level of the enzyme's protein as well as to the steady state level of the transcript coding for the enzyme.

A cell of the invention further preferably comprises a genetic modification that increases the flux of the pentose phosphate pathway as described in WO 06/009434. In particular, the genetic modification causes an increased flux of the non-oxidative part pentose phosphate pathway. A genetic modification that causes an increased flux of the non-oxidative part of the pentose phosphate pathway is herein understood to mean a modification that increases the flux by at least a factor 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 2, 5, 10 or 20 as compared to the flux in a strain which is genetically identical except for the genetic modification causing the increased flux. The flux of the non-oxidative part of the pentose phosphate pathway may be measured as described in WO 06/009434.

Genetic modifications that increase the flux of the pentose phosphate pathway may be introduced in the cells of the invention in various ways. These including e.g. achieving higher steady state activity levels of xylulose kinase and/or one or more of the enzymes of the non-oxidative part pentose phosphate pathway and/or a reduced steady state level of unspecific aldose reductase activity. These changes in steady state activity levels may be effected by selection of mutants (spontaneous or induced by chemicals or radiation) and/or by recombinant DNA technology e.g. by overexpression or inactivation, respectively, of genes encoding the enzymes or factors regulating these genes.

In a preferred cell of the invention, the genetic modification comprises overexpression of at least one enzyme of the (non-oxidative part) pentose phosphate pathway. Preferably the enzyme is selected from the group consisting of the enzymes encoding for ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase, ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase, transketolase and transaldolase. Various combinations of enzymes of the (non-oxidative part) pentose phosphate pathway may be overexpressed. E.g. the enzymes that are overexpressed may be at least the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase and ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase; or at least the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase and transketolase; or at least the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase and transaldolase; or at least the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase and transketolase; or at least the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase and transaldolase; or at least the enzymes transketolase and transaldolase; or at least the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase, transketolase and transaldolase; or at least the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase, transketolase and transaldolase; or at least the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase, ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase, and transaldolase; or at least the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase, ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase, and transketolase. In one embodiment of the invention each of the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase, ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase, transketolase and transaldolase are overexpressed in the cell of the invention. Preferred is a cell in which the genetic modification comprises at least overexpression of the enzyme transaldolase. More preferred is a cell in which the genetic modification comprises at least overexpression of both the enzymes transketolase and transaldolase as such a host cell is already capable of anaerobic growth on xylose. In fact, under some conditions we have found that cells overexpressing only the transketolase and the transaldolase already have the same anaerobic growth rate on xylose as do cells that overexpress all four of the enzymes, i.e. the ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase, ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase, transketolase and transaldolase. Moreover, cells of the invention overexpressing both of the enzymes ribulose-5-phosphate isomerase and ribulose-5-phosphate 3-epimerase are preferred over cells overexpressing only the isomerase or only the 3-epimerase as overexpression of only one of these enzymes may produce metabolic imbalances.

There are various means available in the art for overexpression of enzymes in the cells of the invention. In particular, an enzyme may be overexpressed by increasing the copy number of the gene coding for the enzyme in the cell, e.g. by integrating additional copies of the gene in the cell's genome, by expressing the gene from an episomal multicopy expression vector or by introducing a episomal expression vector that comprises multiple copies of the gene. The coding sequence used for overexpression of the enzymes preferably is homologous to the host cell of the invention. However, coding sequences that are heterologous to the host cell of the invention may likewise be applied.

Alternatively overexpression of enzymes in the cells of the invention may be achieved by using a promoter that is not native to the sequence coding for the enzyme to be overexpressed, i.e. a promoter that is heterologous to the coding sequence to which it is operably linked Although the promoter preferably is heterologous to the coding sequence to which it is operably linked, it is also preferred that the promoter is homologous, i.e. endogenous to the cell of the invention. Preferably the heterologous promoter is capable of producing a higher steady state level of the transcript comprising the coding sequence (or is capable of producing more transcript molecules, i.e. mRNA molecules, per unit of time) than is the promoter that is native to the coding sequence, preferably under conditions where xylose or xylose and glucose are available as carbon sources, more preferably as major carbon sources (i.e. more than 50% of the available carbon source consists of xylose or xylose and glucose), most preferably as sole carbon sources.

A further preferred cell of the invention comprises a genetic modification that reduces unspecific aldose reductase activity in the cell. Preferably, unspecific aldose reductase activity is reduced in the host cell by one or more genetic modifications that reduce the expression of or inactivates a gene encoding an unspecific aldose reductase. Preferably, the genetic modifications reduce or inactivate the expression of each endogenous copy of a gene encoding an unspecific aldose reductase that is capable of reducing an aldopentose, including, xylose, xylulose and arabinose, in the cell's genome. A given cell may comprise multiple copies of genes encoding unspecific aldose reductases as a result of di-, poly- or aneu-ploidy, and/or a cell may contain several different (iso)enzymes with aldose reductase activity that differ in amino acid sequence and that are each encoded by a different gene. Also in such instances preferably the expression of each gene that encodes an unspecific aldose reductase is reduced or inactivated. Preferably, the gene is inactivated by deletion of at least part of the gene or by disruption of the gene, whereby in this context the term gene also includes any non-coding sequence up- or down-stream of the coding sequence, the (partial) deletion or inactivation of which results in a reduction of expression of unspecific aldose reductase activity in the host cell. A nucleotide sequence encoding an aldose reductase whose activity is to be reduced in the cell of the invention and amino acid sequences of such aldose reductases are described in WO 06/009434 and include e.g. the (unspecific) aldose reductase genes of S. cerevisiae GRE3 gene (Träff et al., 2001, Appl. Environm. Microbiol. 67: 5668-5674) and orthologues thereof in other species.

A further preferred transformed host cell according to the invention may comprises further genetic modifications that result in one or more of the characteristics selected from the group consisting of (a) increased transport of xylose and/or arabinose into the cell; (b) decreased sensitivity to catabolite repression; (c) increased tolerance to ethanol, osmolarity or organic acids; and, (d) reduced production of by-products. By-products are understood to mean carbon-containing molecules other than the desired fermentation product and include e.g. xylitol, arabinitol, glycerol and/or acetic acid. Any genetic modification described herein may be introduced by classical mutagenesis and screening and/or selection for the desired mutant, or simply by screening and/or selection for the spontaneous mutants with the desired characteristics. Alternatively, the genetic modifications may consist of overexpression of endogenous genes and/or the inactivation of endogenous genes. Genes the overexpression of which is desired for increased transport of arabinose and/or xylose into the cell are preferably chosen form genes encoding a hexose or pentose transporter. In S. cerevisiae and other yeasts these genes include HXT1, HXT2, HXT4, HXT5, HXT7 and GAL2, of which HXT7, HXT5 and GAL2 are most preferred (see Sedlack and Ho, Yeast 2004; 21: 671-684). Another preferred transporter for expression in yeast is the glucose transporter encoded by the P. stipitis SUT1 gene (Katahira et al., 2008, Enzyme Microb. Technol. 43: 115-119). Similarly orthologues of these transporter genes in other species may be overexpressed. Other genes that may be overexpressed in the cells of the invention include genes coding for glycolytic enzymes and/or ethanologenic enzymes such as alcohol dehydrogenases. Preferred endogenous genes for inactivation include hexose kinase genes e.g. the S. cerevisiae HXK2 gene (see Diderich et al., 2001, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67: 1587-1593); the S. cerevisiae MIG1 or MIG2 genes; genes coding for enzymes involved in glycerol metabolism such as the S. cerevisiae glycerol-phosphate dehydrogenase 1 and/or 2 genes; or (hybridising) orthologues of these genes in other species. Other preferred further modifications of host cells for xylose fermentation are described in van Maris et al. (2006, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 90:391-418), WO2006/009434, WO2005/023998, WO2005/111214, and WO2005/091733. Any of the genetic modifications of the cells of the invention as described herein are, in as far as possible, preferably introduced or modified by self cloning genetic modification.

A preferred host cell according to the invention has the ability to grow on at least one of xylose and arabinose as carbon/energy source, preferably as sole carbon/energy source, and preferably under anaerobic conditions, i.e. conditions as defined herein below for anaerobic fermentation process. Preferably, when grown on xylose as carbon/energy source the host cell produces essentially no xylitol, e.g. the xylitol produced is below the detection limit or e.g. less than 5, 2, 1, 0.5, or 0.3% of the carbon consumed on a molar basis. Preferably, when grown on arabinose as carbon/energy source, the cell produces essentially no arabinitol, e.g. the arabinitol produced is below the detection limit or e.g. less than 5, 2, 1, 0.5, or 0.3% of the carbon consumed on a molar basis.

A preferred host cell of the invention has the ability to grow on a combination of: a) at least one of a hexose and a pentose; b) acetic acid; and c) glycerol at a rate of at least 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.25 or 0.3 h⁻¹ under aerobic conditions, or, more preferably, at a rate of at least 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.08, 0.1, 0.12, 0.15 or 0.2 h⁻¹ under anaerobic conditions. Therefore, preferably the host cell has the ability to grow on at least one of xylose and arabinose as sole carbon/energy source at a rate of at least 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.25 or 0.3 h⁻¹ under aerobic conditions, or, more preferably, at a rate of at least 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.08, 0.1, 0.12, 0.15 or 0.2 h⁻¹ under anaerobic conditions. More preferably, the host cell has the ability to grow on a mixture of a hexose (e.g. glucose) and at least one of xylose and arabinose (in a 1:1 weight ratio) as sole carbon/energy source at a rate of at least 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.25 or 0.3 h⁻¹ under aerobic conditions, or, more preferably, at a rate of at least 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.08, 0.1, 0.12, 0.15 or 0.2 h⁻¹ under anaerobic conditions.

In a one aspect, the invention relates to the use of a yeast cell according to the invention for the preparation of a fermentation product selected from the group consisting of ethanol, lactic acid, 3-hydroxy-propionic acid, acrylic acid, 1,3-propane-diol, butanols and isoprenoid-derived products.

In another aspect the invention relates to a process for producing a fermentation product selected from the group consisting of ethanol, lactic acid, 3-hydroxy-propionic acid, acrylic acid, 1,3-propane-diol, butanols (1-butanol, 2-butanol, isobutanol) and isoprenoid-derived products. The process preferably comprises the step of: a) fermenting a medium with a yeast cell, whereby the medium contains or is fed with: a) a source of at least one of a hexose and a pentose; b) a source of acetic acid; and, c) a source of glycerol and whereby the yeast cell ferments acetic acid, glycerol and at least one of the hexose and pentose to ethanol. The yeast cell preferably is a (host) cell as herein defined above. The process preferably comprise a further step wherein the fermentation product is recovered. The process may be a batch process, a fed-batch process or a continuous process as are well known in the art. In the process of the invention, the source of glycerol may be a any carbon source that has a more reduced state than glucose. A carbon source having a more reduced state than glucose is understood as a carbon source of which the average reduction state per C-mol (of the compounds therein) is higher than the reduction state per C-mol of glucose. Examples of carbon sources having a more reduced state than glucose include e.g. alkanols such as propanol and butanol; polyols such as 1,3-propane-diol, butandiol, glycerol, mannitol and xylitol.

In a preferred process the source of hexose comprises or consists of glucose. Preferably the source pentose comprises or consists of at least one of xylose and arabinose. Preferably, the medium fermented by the cells of the invention comprises or is fed with (fractions of) hydrolysed biomass comprising at least one at least one of a hexose and a pentose such as glucose, xylose and/or arabinose. The (fractions of) hydrolysed biomass comprising the hexoses and pentose will usually also comprise acetic acid (or a salt thereof). An example of hydrolysed biomass to be fermented in the processes of the invention is e.g. hydrolysed lignocellulosic biomass. Lignocellulosic biomass is herein understood as plant biomass that is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The carbohydrate polymers (cellulose and hemicelluloses) are tightly bound to the lignin. Examples of lignocellulosic biomass to be hydrolysed for use in the present invention include agricultural residues (including corn stover and sugarcane bagasse), wood residues (including sawmill and paper mill discards and (municipal) paper waste. Methods for hydrolysis of biomass such as lignocelluloses are known in the art per se and include e.g. acids, such as sulphuric acid and enzymes such as cellulases and hemicellulases.

In the process of the invention, the sources of xylose, glucose and arabinose may be xylose, glucose and arabinose as such (i.e. as monomeric sugars) or they may be in the form of any carbohydrate oligo- or polymer comprising xylose, glucose and/or arabinose units, such as e.g. lignocellulose, arabinans, xylans, cellulose, starch and the like. For release of xylose, glucose and/or arabinose units from such carbohydrates, appropriate carbohydrases (such as arabinases, xylanases, glucanases, amylases, cellulases, glucanases and the like) may be added to the fermentation medium or may be produced by the modified host cell. In the latter case the modified host cell may be genetically engineered to produce and excrete such carbohydrases. An additional advantage of using oligo- or polymeric sources of glucose is that it enables to maintain a low(er) concentration of free glucose during the fermentation, e.g. by using rate-limiting amounts of the carbohydrases preferably during the fermentation. This, in turn, will prevent repression of systems required for metabolism and transport of non-glucose sugars such as xylose and arabinose. In a preferred process the modified host cell ferments both the glucose and at least one of xylose and arabinose, preferably simultaneously in which case preferably a modified host cell is used which is insensitive to glucose repression to prevent diauxic growth. In addition to a source of at least one of xylose and arabinose (and glucose) as carbon source, the fermentation medium will further comprise the appropriate ingredient required for growth of the modified host cell. Compositions of fermentation media for growth of eukaryotic microorganisms such as yeasts are well known in the art.

In the process of the invention, the medium further preferably comprises and/or is fed a source of glycerol. Glycerol for use in the process of the present invention may advantageously be glycerol that is generated as a by-product in biodiesel production from transesterification reactions using vegetable oils or animal fats and an alcohol.

The fermentation process may be an aerobic or an anaerobic fermentation process. An anaerobic fermentation process is herein defined as a fermentation process run in the absence of oxygen or in which substantially no oxygen is consumed, preferably less than 5, 2.5 or 1 mmol/L/h, more preferably 0 mmol/L/h is consumed (i.e. oxygen consumption is not detectable), and wherein organic molecules serve as both electron donor and electron acceptors. In the absence of oxygen, NADH produced in glycolysis and biomass formation, cannot be oxidised by oxidative phosphorylation. To solve this problem many microorganisms use pyruvate or one of its derivatives as an electron and hydrogen acceptor thereby regenerating NAD⁺. Thus, in a preferred anaerobic fermentation process pyruvate is used as an electron (and hydrogen acceptor) and is reduced to fermentation products such as ethanol, as well as non-ethanol fermentation products such as lactic acid, 3-hydroxy-propionic acid, acrylic acid, 1,3-propane-diol, butanols (1-butanol, 2-butanol, isobutanol) isoprenoid-derived products. Anaerobic processes of the invention are preferred over aerobic processes because anaerobic processes do not require investments and energy for aeration and in addition, anaerobic processes produce higher product yields than aerobic processes.

Alternatively, the fermentation process of the invention may be run under aerobic oxygen-limited conditions. Preferably, in an aerobic process under oxygen-limited conditions, the rate of oxygen consumption is at least 5.5, more preferably at least 6 and even more preferably at least 7 mmol/L/h. In a preferred aerobic oxygen-limited fermentation process of the invention, the yeast cell of the invention consumes less than 30, 20, 18, 15, 12, 10, 8 or 5% of the amount of oxygen on a C-molar basis related to the carbon source consumed during the conversion of the carbon source into the fermentation product. The conversion coefficient of oxygen consumed over substrate utilised on a C-molar basis (C_(OS)) is herein understood to mean mol O₂ used per C-mol carbon source consumed. Thus, a process of the invention can be carried out under strict anaerobic conditions (i.e. C_(OS)=0.0), or the process of the invention can be carried out under aerobic, preferably oxygen-limited conditions wherein the C_(OS) is preferably less than 0.3, 0.2, 0.18, 0.15, 0.12, 0.1, 0.08, or 0.05.

The fermentation process is preferably run at a temperature that is optimal for the modified cells of the invention. Thus, for most yeasts cells, the fermentation process is performed at a temperature which is less than 42° C., preferably less than 38° C. For yeast cells, the fermentation process is preferably performed at a temperature which is lower than 35, 33, 30 or 28° C. and at a temperature which is higher than 20, 22, or 25° C.

A preferred fermentation process according to the invention is a process for the production of ethanol, whereby the process comprises the step of fermenting a medium with a yeast cell, whereby the medium contains or is fed with: a) a source of at least one of a hexose and a pentose; b) a source of acetic acid; and, c) a source of glycerol, whereby the yeast cell ferments acetic acid, glycerol and at least one of the hexose and pentose to ethanol, and optionally, b) recovery of the ethanol. The fermentation medium may further be performed as described above. In the process the volumetric ethanol productivity is preferably at least 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 5.0 or 10.0 g ethanol per liter per hour. The ethanol yield on xylose and/or glucose and/or arabinose and/or acetate and/or glycerol in the process preferably is at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95 or 98%. The ethanol yield is herein defined as a percentage of the theoretical maximum yield, which, for xylose, glucose and arabinose is 0.51 g. ethanol per g. xylose, glucose or arabinose. For glycerol the theoretical maximum yield is 0.50 g. ethanol per g. glycerol and for acetic acid the theoretical maximum yield is 0.77 g. ethanol per g. acetic acid.

In this document and in its claims, the verb “to comprise” and its conjugations is used in its non-limiting sense to mean that items following the word are included, but items not specifically mentioned are not excluded. In addition, reference to an element by the indefinite article “a” or “an” does not exclude the possibility that more than one of the element is present, unless the context clearly requires that there be one and only one of the elements. The indefinite article “a” or “an” thus usually means “at least one”.

All patent and literature references cited in the present specification are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

The following examples are offered for illustrative purposes only, and are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention in any way.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1. The evolution of the net glycerol levels (g/l) (i.e. production minus consumption) over time (hours) is shown for S. cerevisiae strains RN1041, RN1041+pRN595, RN1186, RN1187, RN1188 and RN1189.

FIG. 2. The evolution of the net acetic acid levels (g/l) (i.e. production minus consumption) over time (hours) is shown for S. cerevisiae strains RN1041, RN1041+pRN595, RN1186, RN1187, RN1188 and RN1189.

EXAMPLES 1. Enzyme Activity Assays

Cell extracts for activity assays were prepared from exponentially growing aerobic or anaerobic batch cultures and analysed for protein content as described by Abbot et al., (2009, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75: 2320-2325).

NAD⁺-dependent acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.10) activity was measured at 30° C. by monitoring the oxidation of NADH at 340 mm. The reaction mixture (total volume 1 ml) contained 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.5), 0.15 mM NADH and cell extract. The reaction was started by addition of 0.5 mM acetyl-Coenzyme A.

For glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.8) activity determination, cell extracts were prepared as described above except that the phosphate buffer was replaced by triethanolamine buffer (10 mM, pH 5). Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase activities were assayed in cell extracts at 30° C. as described previously (Blomberg and Adler, 1989, J. Bacteriol. 171: 1087-1092.9). Reaction rates were proportional to the amounts of cell extract added.

Acetyl-CoA synthase (EC 6.2.1.1) activity was measured as described by Frenkel and Kitchens (1977, J. Biol. Chem. 252: 504-507) which is a modification of the method of Webster (Webster, 1969, Methods Enzymol. 13: 375-381). NADH formation measured is spectrophotometrically when the acetyl-CoA produced is coupled with citrate synthase and malate dehydrogenase reactions. The assay system contained 100 mM Tris-Cl (pH 7.6), 10 mM MgCl₂, 6 mM ATP, 5 mM malate, 1 mM NAD⁺, 0.1 mM NADH, 2.5 mM dithiothreitol or 2-mercaptoethanol, 0.2 mM coenzyme A, 25 ng citrate synthase (80 units/mg), 20 ng malate dehydrogenase (1000 units/mg), and 10 mM acetate and the reaction was measured rate was measured at 340 nm and calculated from the extinction coefficient of NADH (6.22×10⁶ cm²/mol).

The activity of glycerol dehydrogenase and dihydroxyacetone kinase are measured at 30° C. in cell extracts, essentially as previously described (Gonzalez et al., 2008, Metab. Eng. 10, 234-245). Enzyme activities of glycerol dehydrogenase and dihydroxyacetone kinase are reported as μmoles of substrate/min/mg of cell protein.

2. Strain Construction

All modifications start with the xylose and arabinose fermenting strain RN1008 his⁻. RN1008 his⁻, also referred to herein as RN1041, is a CEN.PK-based arabinose and xylose fermenting strain) with the genotype:

Mat a, ura3-52, leu2-112, his3::loxP, gre3::loxP, loxP-Ptpi::TAL1, loxP-Ptpi::RKI1, loxP-Ptpi-TKL1, loxP-Ptpi-RPE1, delta::-LEU2, delta::Padh1XKS1Tcyc1-URA3-Ptpi-xylA-Tcyc1, delta::LEU2-AAAaraABD.

-   -   Mat a=mating type a     -   ura3-52, leu2-112, his3::loxP mutations in the genes ura3, leu2         and his3, the ura3 is complemented by the xylA-XKS         overexpression construct, leu2 is complemented by the AraABD         overexpression construct. his3 could be used for selection of         additional plasmids, RN1041 needs histidine in the medium for         growth.     -   gre3::loxP=deletion of the gre3 gene encoding xylose reductase,         loxP site is left after marker removal.     -   loxP-Ptpi . . . =overexpression of het pentose phosphate         pathway, loxP site upstream of constitutive promoter is left         after marker removal     -   delta::=integration of the construct after recombination on the         long terminal repeats of the Ty1 reterotransposon.     -   AAAaraABD=codon optimized arthrobacter aurescens araA, araB and         araD genes (see WO2009/011591)         Deletion Constructs for GPD1 and GPD2

The deletion of GPD1 in RN1041 produces strain RN1197. The deletion of GPD2 in RN1041 produces strain RN1198. In this strain subsequently gpd1 is deleted to produce strain RN1199. In these strains plasmids were introduced for overexpression of the ACS genes (RN1200 to RN1207, Table 4) and further genes as indicated in Table 4.

gpd1::hphMX

Primers gpd1uf, gpd1ur, gpd1df and gpd1dr are used for amplification of genomic sequences fragments upstream and downstream of the GPD1 gene for its inactivation. Both the up- and downstream GPD1 fragments are cloned into a topo blunt vector (InVitrogen) to yield pGPD1up and pGPD1down, respectively.

(SEQ ID NO: 41) gpd1uf: AAGCTTGGTACCCGCCTTGCTTCTCTCCCC (SEQ ID NO: 42) gpd1ur: TCTAGACCAGCATTCAAGTGGCCGGA (SEQ ID NO: 43) gpd1df: CGTACGAGTTGTTGAATGGCCAATCCGCT (SEQ ID NO: 44) gpd1dr: CCATGGTACCGAGTGGTGTTGTAACCACCCT (SEQ ID NO: 45) gpd1cf: ACCAATACGTAAACGGGGCG (SEQ ID NO: 46) gpd1cr: AATACACCCATACATACGGACGC

Plasmid pRN593 (SEQ ID NO: 40) is constructed by ligation of the fragment cut with HindIII and XbaI from pGPD1up to the hphMX fragment cut with SpeI and BsrGI (plasmid collection C5YeastCompany) and the fragment cut with BsiWI and NcoI from pGPD1down into the HindIII and NcoI cut topo T/A vector (Invitrogen). Plasmid pRN593 is cut with KpnI to obtain deletion fragment for disrupting the genomic copy (SEQ ID NO: 17). The mixture of linear fragments is used for transformation of yeast. Transformants are selected for hygromycin resistance. Correct integration results in deletion of the GPD1 open reading frame. The integration is PCR verified with the primers gpd1cf and gpd1cr.

gpd2::natMX

Primers GPD2uf, GPD2ur, GPD2df and GPD2dr are used for amplification of genomic sequences fragments upstream and downstream of the GPD2 gene for its inactivation. A 407 bp upstream PCR fragment with an AflII site at the 3′-end (derived from the GPD2 sequence) and a BglII site at the 5′-end (for isolation of the deletion construct) is amplified using GPD2uf, GPD2ur and cloned in pCR2.1 (topo T/A, Invitrogen).

(SEQ ID NO: 32) GPD2uf: GGTACCAGATCTTTTGCGGCGAGGTGCCG (SEQ ID NO: 33) GPD2ur: TCTAGACTTAAGGAATGTGTATCTTGTTAATCTTCTGACAGC

A 417 bp downstream PCR fragment with a XhoI site at the 5′-end and a BglII site at the 3′-end is amplified using GPD2df and GPD2dr.

(SEQ ID NO: 34) GPD2df: CTCGAGATAGTCTACAACAACGTCCGCA (SEQ ID NO: 35) GPD2dr: CCATGGAGATCTGCAGTGAAAAAGCTCGAAGAAACAGCT

For the final construction the plasmid containing the upstream fragment is cut with AflII and Kpn, the downstream fragment is cut with XhoI en NcoI and the natMX marker (plasmid collection Royal Nedalco) is cut with AflII en XhoI and the fragments are ligated to produce plasmid pRN594 (SEQ ID NO: 36). pRN594 is cut with BglII prior to yeast transformation. Transformants are selected for nourseotricin resistance. Correct integration is verified by PCR.

Cloning Method for Overexpression of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ACS1 and ACS2 Genes

The ACS1 open reading frame is PCR amplified with the primers acs1f and acs1r.

acs1f: (SEQ ID NO: 47)  TTAAGCTTAAAATGTCGCCCTCTGCCGT acs1r: (SEQ ID NO: 48) AAGCGCGCTACAACTTGACCGAATCAATTAGATGTCTAACAATGCCAGGG

This PCR fragment is cut with the restriction enzymes HindIII and BssHII and ligated to the SalI and HindIII cut TEF1 promoter fragment (collection C5YeastCompany) and the BssHII and BsiWI cut ADH1 terminator fragment (collection C5YeastCompany). This combined fragment is PCRed with promoter and terminator specific primers and cloned into the topo Blunt vector (InVitrogen) to give pACS1.

The ACS2 open reading frame is PCR amplified with the primers acs2f and acs2r.

acs2f: (SEQ ID NO: 49) AACTGCAGAAAATGACAATCAAGGAACATAAAGTAGTTTATGAAGCTCA acs2r: (SEQ ID NO: 50) ACGTCGACTATTTCTTTTTTTGAGAGAAAAATTGGTTCTCTACAGCAGA

This PCR fragment is cut with the restriction enzymes PstI and SalI and ligated to the SpeI and PstI cut PGK1 promoter fragment (collection C5YeastCompany) and the XhoI and BsiWI cut PGI1 terminator fragment (collection C5YeastCompany). This combined fragment is PCRed with promoter and terminator specific primers and cloned into the topo Blunt vector (InVitrogen) to give plasmid pACS2.

The ACS1 overexpression construct is cut from pACS1 with the restriction enzymes SalI and BsiWI, the ACS2 overexpression construct is cut from pACS2 with the restriction enzymes SpeI and BsiWI, the KanMX marker is cut with BspEI and XbaI (plasmid collection C5YeastCompany). These fragments are ligated to the plasmid pRS306+2mu ORI (plasmid collection C5Yeast company) cut with BspEI and XhoI to give the final plasmid pRN753 (SEQ ID NO: 51). This plasmid is used to transform yeast strains as indicated in Table 4 and transformants are selected on G418 resistance. Overexpression is verified by qPCR. An alternative plasmid that may be used for overexpression of ACS1 and ACS2 is pRN500 (SEQ ID NO: 20).

Expression of E. coli adhE, E. histolytica ADH2 or E. coli mphF

The PGK1 promoter (SpeI-PstI) and the ADH1 terminator sequence (AflII-NotI) are added to the codon optimized synthetic fragments and cloned into pRS303 with 2μ ori cut with SpeI and NotI and the expression construct is cloned in this vector. Expression is qPRC verified. Codon optimized sequences for E. coli mphF (SEQ ID NO: 2), E. coli adhE (SEQ ID NO: 4) and E. histolytica ADH2 (SEQ ID NO: 6) are as indicated in the sequence listing.

For expression of the E. coli mhpF gene, a yeast PGK1 promoter fragment (SpeI-PstI) and an ADH1 terminator fragment (AflII-NotI) (both from the Nedalco plasmid collection) were ligated onto the codon-optimized synthetic fragment encoding the E. coli mhpF (SEQ ID NO: 2). pRS 303 with 2μ ori (=pRN347, Royal Nedalco plasmid collection) was cut with SpeI and NotI and the mhpF expression construct was cloned into this vector to produce pRN558 (SEQ ID NO: 29).

For expression of the E. coli adhE gene, a codon optimized synthetic fragment encoding the E. coli adhE (SEQ ID NO: 4) is cut with XbaI and AflII and ligated into pRN558 cut with XbaI and AflII (replacing the E. coli mhpF gene in pRN558) to produce pRN595 (SEQ ID NO: 30).

For expression of the Entamoebe histolytica adh2, a codon optimized synthetic fragment encoding the E. histolytica adh2 (SEQ ID NO: 6) is cut with XbaI and AflII and ligated into pRN558 cut with XbaI and AflII (replacing the E. coli mhpF gene in pRN558) to produce pRN596 (SEQ ID NO: 31). pRN595 is used for further construction of pRN957 and pRN977 (see below). It is clear that pRN558 and pRN596 can be used in the same way, thereby replacing expression of E. coli adhE with E. coli mhpF or E. histolytica adh2, respectively.

Expression of E. coli gldA

The construct for expression in yeast of the E. coli gldA was made by ligating a yeast ACT1 promoter fragment (cut with the restriction enzymes SpeI and PstI), a synthetic ORF (SEQ ID NO: 21), encoding the E. coli gldA, (cut with PstI en BssHII) and a yeast CYC1 terminator fragment (cut with BssHII and BsiWI) together into pCRII blunt (Invitrogen) to yield pRNgldA (SEQ ID NO: 28).

DAK1 Overexpression

PCR is performed on genomic DNA of S. cerevisiae with primers introducing a XbaI site 5′ of the ATG and a SalI site 3′ of the TAA to produce the fragment of SEQ ID NO: 22. A DNA fragment comprising the S. cerevisiae TPI1 promoter is ligated upstream of the DAK1 ORF and DNA fragment comprising the S. cerevisiae PGI1 terminator fragment is ligated downstream of the DAK1 ORF to produce pRNDAK (SEQ ID NO: 38).

Expression of C. freundii dhaK

The construct for expression in yeast of the Citrobacter freundii dhaK was made by ligating the yeast TPI1 promoter fragment (cut with the restriction enzymes XhoI and XbaI), a synthetic ORF (SEQ ID NO: 26), encoding the C. freundii dhaK, (cut with XbaI and SalI) and a yeast PGI1 terminator fragment (cut with XhoI and BsiWI) together into pCRII blunt (Invitrogen) to yield pRNdhaK (SEQ ID NO: 27).

GUP1 Overexpression

PCR is performed on genomic DNA of S. cerevisiae with primers introducing a HindIII site 5′ of the ATG and a BamHI site 3′ of the TAA to produce the fragment of SEQ ID NO: 23. A DNA fragment comprising the S. cerevisiae TDH3 promoter is ligated upstream of the GUP1 ORF and DNA fragment comprising the S. cerevisiae CYC1 terminator fragment is ligated downstream of the GUP1 ORF.

FPS1 Overexpression

PCR is performed on genomic DNA of S. cerevisiae with primers introducing a NsiI site 5′ of the ATG and a BamHI site 3′ of the TAA to produce the fragment of SEQ ID NO: 24. A DNA fragment comprising the S. cerevisiae ADH1 (medium) promoter is ligated upstream of the FSP1 ORF and DNA fragment comprising the S. cerevisiae CYC1 terminator fragment is ligated downstream of the FSP1 ORF.

Construction of pRN347 and Yeast Strain RN1151

pRN347 is constructed by cloning the 2μ origin of replication (that was PCR-amplified from pYES2) in pRS303 (with HIS3 gene for complementation). RN1041 is transformed with the plasmid pRN347 to produce strain RN1151.

Strains Expressing E. coli gldA and C. freundii dhaK or Overexpressing DAK1

For construction of pRN957, the E. coli gldA expression construct is cut from plasmid pRNgldA with the restriction enzymes SpeI and BsiWI. The C. freundii dhaK expression construct is cut from plasmid pRNdhaK with the restriction enzymes BsiWI and XhoI. These fragments are ligated into plasmid pRN595 cut with the restriction enzymes SpeI and SalI to yield pRN957 (SEQ ID NO: 37).

For construction of pRN977, the E. coli gldA expression construct is cut from plasmid pRNgldA with the restriction enzymes SpeI and BsiWI. The DAK1 expression construct is cut from the plasmid pRNDAK with the restriction enzymes BsiWI and XhoI. These fragments are ligated to plasmid pRN595 cut with the restriction enzymes SpeI and SalI to yield pRN977 (SEQ ID NO: 39).

Plasmids pRN957 and pRN977 are used to transform RN1041, RN1197, RN1198 and RN1199 to yield yeast strains as indicated in Table 4.

TABLES 4A and B Overview of constructed strains Table 4A ACS1 ACS2 GPD1 GPD2 adhE DAK1 Cf dhaK Ec gldA Strain marker kanMX kanMX hphMX natMX HIS3 HIS3 HIS3 HIS3 HIS3 RN1041 wt wt wt wt absent wt absent absent del RN1151 wt wt wt wt absent wt absent absent wt RN1197 wt wt del wt absent wt absent absent wt RN1198 wt wt wt del absent wt absent absent wt RN1199 wt wt del del absent wt absent absent wt RN1200 up up wt wt expression up absent expression RN1201 up up wt wt expression wt expression expression RN1202 up up del wt expression up absent expression RN1203 up up del wt expression wt expression expression RN1204 up up wt del expression up absent expression RN1205 up up wt del expression wt expression expression RN1206 up up del del expression up absent expression RN1207 up up del del expression wt expression expression Table 4B ACS1/2 gpd1Δ gpd2Δ adhE, gldA, DAK1 adhE, gldA, dhaK HIS3 RN1041 RN1151 pRN347 RN1197 pRN593 pRN347 RN1198 pRN347 RN1199 pRN593 pRN594 pRN347 RN1200 pRN753 pRN957 RN1201 pRN753 pRN977 RN1202 pRN753 pRN593 pRN957 RN1203 pRN753 pRN593 pRN977 RN1204 pRN753 pRN594 pRN957 RN1205 pRN753 pRN594 pRN977 RN1206 pRN753 pRN593 pRN594 pRN957 RN1207 pRN753 pRN593 pRN594 pRN977

3. Anoxic Fermentations in Sterile Yeast Extract Peptone Medium with Constructed Strains in the Presence and Absence of Glycerol and or Acetic Acid

The proof of principle of concomitant reduction of acetic acid and oxidation of glycerol was obtained by using a medium containing 1% yeast extract and 1% peptone. Experiments were run in chemostat culture (1 liter working volume) at D=0.05 h⁻¹ and the pH was kept at 5.5 by automatic addition of either KOH or H₂SO₄. Glucose (50 g/l) and xylose (50 g/l) were added as carbon and energy source to the yeast extract peptone medium. For these experiments demonstrating the proof of principle, no arabinose was included. Where relevant, acetic acid was added to the yeast extract peptone medium at 4 g/l and glycerol at 10 g/l. The temperature was kept at 32° C.

Precultures of strains are prepared by inoculating a frozen glycerol stock culture of the yeast in an YP (Yeast extract at 1% w/v and Peptone at 1% w/v) medium with addition of each of the sugars glucose and xylose (each at 1% w/v) at 32° C. and pH 5.5. After 24 h incubation under oxic conditions in shake flasks, 50 ml of this culture is used to inoculate the chemostat cultures.

At steady state of the fermentations (5 volume changes), a sample was taken for analysis of sugar (glucose and xylose) consumption, consumption of acetic acid, and metabolite (ethanol and glycerol). Ethanol, glycerol and acetic acid concentrations are monitored by HPLC analysis. To determine the sugar consumption, glucose and xylose are determined by HPAEC (Dionex) analysis.

Strain RN1151 is not able to reach a steady state situation in the medium containing 4 g/l acetic acid either in the presence or absence of glycerol. If no acetic acid is added to the medium, the organism at steady state consumed all glucose and xylose (less than 1 g/l remaining) No glycerol was consumed, but instead it was produced.

Strains RN1200 and RN1201 are similarly tested on media with acetic acid and either with or without glycerol added. These strains perform distinctly different from strain RN1151. In the glycerol-containing medium the sugars glucose and xylose are consumed almost to completion (less than 1 g/l remaining) Acetic acid levels decreases to 0.5 g/l and the concentrations of glycerol at the end of the fermentation is 3 g/l in all three instances. The amounts of ethanol produced by strain RN1200 and RN1201 ranged between 43 and 47 g/l in various experiments. In the medium not containing glycerol, but containing 4 g/l acetic acid, no stable steady state was obtained. The strains cannot grow under these conditions. From these results we conclude that expression of the E. coli gldA and adhE genes in combination with upregulation of DAK1 or expression of C. freundii dhaK, has a profound effect on the performance of the strains. In the presence of glycerol, they are able to consume glycerol and acetic acid,

Strains RN1202 to RN1207 are similar to strains RN1200 and RN1201 except for the fact that GPD1 and/or GPD2 genes have been deleted. In the medium containing 4 g/l acetic acid, the sugars glucose and xylose are consumed almost to completion (less than 1 g/l remaining) if glycerol is added to the medium as is the case for strains RN1200 and RN1201. If no glycerol is added, no steady state is obtained.

4. Anoxic Fermentations with the Constructed Strains in Acetic Acid Comprising Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates in the Presence or Absence of Glycerol

The corn fiber hydrolysate contains: glucose (38 g/l), xylose (28 g/l), arabinose (12 g/l) and acetic acid (4 g/l). It had been prepared by treating corn fibers at 160 C and at pH 3.0 during 20 minutes, followed by enzymatic hydrolysis by cellulases and hemicellulases. Acetic acid was added to this hydrolysate resulting in a total concentration of acetic acid in the hydrolysate of 10 g/l. The pH of this hydrolysate enriched in acetic acid was restored to pH=4.5 by KOH addition. Yeast extract was added to this hydrolysate to reach a final concentration of 5 g/l. In all subsequent experiments, this enriched hydrolysate was employed. The pH during fermentations was kept at 6.5 by automatic addition of either KOH or H₂SO₄.

Precultures of strains are prepared by inoculating a frozen glycerol stock culture of the yeast in an YP (Yeast extract at 1% w/v and Peptone at 1% w/v) medium with addition of each of the sugars glucose, xylose and arabinose (each at 1% w/v) at 32° C. and pH 5.5. After 24 h incubation under oxic conditions in shake flasks, 50 ml of this culture is used to inoculate the fermenter cultures. Fermentations are performed in a fed-batch fermentation setup. Hydrolysate (either with or without glycerol added at 50 g/l) is pumped into the fermenter. If no glycerol was added, then 40 ml of water was added. During the first 6 hours, the flow rate for hydrolysate is set at a rate of 5 ml per hour. During the next 6 hours, the flow rate is set at 10 ml per hour. Subsequently, for another 43 hours, the flow rate is set at 20 ml per hour. The total volume at the end of the fermentation reaches 1000 ml. These anoxic fed-batch fermentations are performed at about pH=4.5 with gentle stirring at 100 rpm. The temperature during the fermentations is set at 32° C. To minimize infection, the hydrolysates are heated for 10 min at 105° C. prior to fermentations and the antibiotic kanamycine with at final concentration of 50 μg/ml is added.

At the end of the fermentations after 55 h, a sample was taken for analysis of sugar (glucose, xylose and arabinose) consumption, consumption of acetic acid, and metabolite (ethanol and glycerol). Ethanol, glycerol and acetic acid concentrations over time are monitored by HPLC analysis. To determine the sugar consumption, glucose, xylose, and arabinose are determined by HPAEC (Dionex) analysis.

Strain RN1151 (=RN1041 complemented with HIS3) is tested on hydrolysate either with or without glycerol added. In both instances, the concentration of glucose at the end of the fermentation run (55 h) is 35 g/l whereas xylose and arabinose remain at their initial concentrations of 28 and 12 g/l, respectively. The amounts of ethanol produced are 2 g/l and acetic acid is present at 9.5 g/l. No glycerol consumption is detected in the glycerol-containing hydrolysate. The fermentation of the sugars halts during the course of the fed-batch operation because of increasing levels of acetic acid. Initially, no acetic acid is present in the fermenter, but while pumping the hydrolysate that contained toxic levels of acetic acid, the concentration quickly reaches toxic levels.

Strains RN1200 and RN1201 are similarly tested on hydrolysate either with or without glycerol added. These strains perform distinctly different from strain RN1151. In the glycerol-containing hydrolysate, the sugars glucose, xylose and arabinose are consumed to completion. Acetic acid levels decreases to 2 g/l and the concentrations of glycerol at the end of the fermentation is 29.5 g/l in all three instances. The amounts of ethanol produced by strains RN1200 and RN1201 are 51.7, and 52.2 g/l, respectively. In the hydrolysate that did not contain glycerol, considerably less sugar is consumed. Xylose and arabinose levels are unchanged at 28 and 12 g/l, respectively. Glucose is consumed but to a limited extent only. At the end of the fermentation, the remaining concentration is 32 g/l in all three instances with ethanol reaching a concentration of 3 g/l. The concentration of acetic acid drops to 9.1 g/l at the end of the fermentation whereas some glycerol is produced (less than 0.5 g/l). From these results we conclude that expression of the E. coli gldA and adhE genes in combination with upregulation of DAK1 or expression of C. freundii dhaK, has a profound effect on the performance of the strains. In the presence of glycerol, they are able to consume glycerol and acetic acid, and produce additional ethanol (as compared to strain RN1151). In the absence of glycerol, the strains consume some acetic acid. But during the fermentation, the acetic acid level rises to toxic levels.

Strains RN1202 to RN1207 are similar to strains RN1200 and RN1201 except for the fact that GPD1 and/or GPD2 genes have been deleted. In the glycerol-containing hydrolysate, the sugars glucose, xylose and arabinose are consumed to completion as was the case for strain RN1200. Acetic acid levels similarly decrease to approximately 2 g/l and the concentrations of glycerol at the end of the fermentation is 28 g/l in these three instances. The amounts of ethanol produced for strains RN1202, RN1203, RN1204, RN1205, RN1206 and RN1207 are 51.6, 52.9, 52.1, 52.5, 53.1 and 52.3 g/l, respectively. In the hydrolysate that not containing glycerol, considerably less sugar is consumed. Xylose and arabinose levels are unchanged at 28 and 12 g/l, respectively. Glucose is consumed but to a limited extent only. At the end of the fermentation, the remaining concentration in the non-glycerol hydrolysate for glucose is 31 g/l in all three instances with ethanol reaching a concentration of 3 g/l. The concentration of acetic acid drops to 9.1 g/l at the end of the fermentation whereas some glycerol is produced (less than 0.5 g/l). From these results we conclude that deleting GPD1 and/or GPD2 genes along with the other modifications in RN1202, RN1203, RN1204, RN1205, RN1206 and RN1207 result in strains that can perform the desired reactions.

Materials and Methods for Examples 5-8

General Molecular Biology Techniques

Unless indicated otherwise, the methods used are standard biochemical techniques. Examples of suitable general methodology textbooks include Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning, a Laboratory Manual (1989) and Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (1995), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Media

The media used in the experiments was either YEP-medium (10 g/l yeast extract, 20 g/l peptone) or solid YNB-medium (6.7 g/l yeast nitrogen base, 15 g/l agar), supplemented with sugars as indicated in the examples. For solid YEP medium, 15 g/l agar was added to the liquid medium prior to sterilization.

In the AFM experiments, Mineral Medium was used. The composition of Mineral Medium has been described by Verduyn et al. (Yeast (1992), Volume 8, 501-517) and was supplemented with 2,325 g/l urea and sugars as indicated in the examples.

Transformation of Yeast Cells

Yeast transformation was done according to the method described by Schiestl and Gietz (Current Genetics (1989), Volume 16, 339-346).

Colony PCR

Genomic DNA was extracted from single yeast colonies for PCR according to the method described by LÕoke et al. (BioTechniques (2011), Volume 50, 325-328).

AFM Procedure

The Alcohol Fermentation Monitor (AFM; Halotec, Veenendaal, the Netherlands) is a robust and user-friendly laboratory parallel bioreactor that allows for accurate comparisons of carbon conversion rates and yields for six simultaneous anaerobic fermentations.

The starting culture of the AFM experiment contained 50 mg of yeast (dry weight). To determine this, a calibration curve was made of the RN1041 strain of biomass vs. OD700. This calibration curve was used in the experiment to determine the volume of cell culture needed for 50 mg of yeast (dry weight).

Prior to the start of the AFM experiment, precultures were grown as indicated in the examples. For each strain the OD₇₀₀ was measured and 50 mg of yeast (dry weight) was inoculated in 400 ml Mineral Medium (Verduyn et al. (Yeast (1992), Volume 8, 501-517), supplemented with 2,325 g/l urea and sugars as indicated in the examples.

Glyceroldehydrogenase Activity Assay

The method for the determination of the glyceroldehydrogenase activity assay was adopted from Lin and Magasanik (1960) J Biol Chem. 235:1820-1823.

TABLE 5 Assay conditions 1.0M Carbonate/bicarbonate buffer pH 10 800 μl 1.0M ammoniumsulfate  33 μl 0.1M NAD+  33 μl Cell Free Extract  5 μl

Cell free extract was prepared by harvesting cells by centrifugation. Cells were harvested in the exponential phase. The cell pellet was washed once with 1 M carbonate/bicarbonate buffer (pH10) and a cell free extract was prepared in the same by the addition of glass beads and vortexing at maximum speed for 1 minute intervals until the cells were disrupted. The latter was checked microscopically.

Shake Flask Experiments

Anaerobic shake flask experiments were performed as indicated in the examples. Typical experiments use 100 ml Erlenmeyer flasks with 25 ml of medium. In order to ensure anaerobic conditions, the flask was closed with a waterlock.

For each time point, a separate shake flask was inoculated, thereby omitting aeration during sampling.

Strains

The parent strain used in the experiments described in examples 5 through 8 is RN1041.

RN1041 has been described in WO 2012067510. This strain has the following genotype:

MAT a, ura3-52, leu2-112, his3::loxP, gre3::loxP, loxP-pTPI1::TAL1, loxP-pTPI1::RKI1, loxP-pTPI1-TKL1, loxP-pTPI1-RPE1, delta::pADH1-XKS1-tCYC1-LEU2, delta::URA3-pTPI1-xylA-tCYC1

MAT a=mating type a

ura3-52, leu2-112, HIS3::loxP mutations in the URA3, LEU2 and HIS3 genes respectively. The ura3-52 mutation is complemented by the URA3 gene on the xylA overexpression construct; the leu2-112 mutation is complemented by the LEU2 gene on the XKS1 overexpression construct. The deletion of the HIS3-gene causes a histidine auxotrophy. For this reason, RN1041 needs histidine in the medium for growth.

gre3::loxP is a deletion of the GRE3 gene, encoding aldose reductase. The loxP site is left behind in the genome after marker removal.

loxP-pTPI1 designates the overexpression of genes of, in the experiments described herein, the non-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway by replacement of the native promoter by the promoter of the TPI1 gene. The loxP site upstream of the strong, constitutive TPI1 promoter remains in the genome after marker removal (Kuyper et al, FEMS Yeast Research 5 (2005) 925-934).

delta:: means chromosomal integration of the construct after recombination on the long terminal repeats of the Ty1 retrotransposon.

Example 5 Construction of Strains

The following strains were constructed:

TABLE 6 strains constructed RN1041 Parent strain (see above) RN1067 RN1041 gpd1::hphMX RN1068 RN1041 gpd2::natMX RN1069 RN1041 gpd1::hphMX gpd2::natMX RN1186 RN1041 + pRN977 RN1187 RN1067 + pRN977 RN1188 RN1068 + pRN977 RN1189 RN1069 + pRN977

The deletion of the GPD1-gene (gpd1) and/or the GPD2-gene (gpd2) was brought about as described in Example 2.

Strains RN1041, RN1067, RN1068 and RN1069 were transformed with plasmid pRN977. This plasmid contains the following features: the HIS3-gene for selection of transformants, the 2μ origin of replication, the ampicillin resistance marker for selection in E. coli, the adhE-gene from E. coli under control of the PGK1-promoter and the ADH1-terminator, the DAK1-gene from S. cerevisiae under control of the TPI1-promoter and the PGI1-terminator and the E. coli gldA-gene, under control of the ACT1-promoter and CYC1-terminator. All promoters and terminators are from S. cerevisiae. The sequence of plasmid pRN977 is set out in SEQ ID NO: 39.

After transformation of strains RN1041, RN1067, RN1068 and RN1069, single colony isolates were subjected to colony PCR analysis, in order to check the presence of plasmid pRN977. A representative colony of each transformation was selected for further experimentation. These selected strains are designated RN1186, RN1187, RN1188 and RN1189.

Similarly, transformants were generated with the following specifications:

TABLE 7 transformants RN1190 RN1041 + pRN957 RN1191 RN1067 + pRN957 RN1192 RN1068 + pRN957 RN1193 RN1069 + pRN957

Plasmid pRN957 is similar to pRN977; however, the DAK1-gene from S. cerevisiae has been replaced by the dhaK-gene from Citrobacter freundii. The sequence of this plasmid, pRN957, is set out in SEQ ID NO: 37.

As a control strain, strain RN1041 was transformed with plasmid pRN595 (RN1041+pRN595). This plasmid, pRN595, is similar to pRN977; however, it lacks the gldA and DAK1 genes. The sequence of plasmid pRN595 is set out in SEQ ID NO: 30.

Example 6 Shake Flask Experiments

The performance of the constructed strains was tested in an anaerobic shake flask experiment. To this end, cells were pregrown in Mineral Medium (Verduyn) supplemented with glucose as carbon source. The cultures were incubated overnight in a rotary shaker at 280 rpm and 30° C.

An aliquot of the cells was taken from the overnight cultures for inoculation of the anaerobic cultures. The amount of cells was such, that the anaerobic culture had an initial optical density at 600 nm of approximately 0.1.

The carbon composition of the Mineral Medium: 2.5% glucose, 2.5% xylose, 1% glycerol and 2 g/l HAc. The pH was adjusted to pH 4.5. The shake flasks were closed with a waterlock in order to ensure anaerobic conditions. For each time point, a separate flask was inoculated.

The results of net glycerol increase or decrease, after 94 hours of fermentation, and the HAc consumption, are indicated in the table below.

TABLE 8 Glycerol and HAc consumption, and ethanol production values per strain Net Glycerol Increase (+) or HAc Decrease (−) consumption Ethanol titer Strain (in grams/liter) (in grams/liter) (in grams per liter) RN1041 +1.47 0.24 23.28 RN1186 −1.20 0.99 25.32 RN1187 −1.52 0.99 23.76 RN1188 −0.80 0.97 25.01 RN1189 −0.86 0.89 24.85 RN1190 −0.47 0.71 24.38 RN1191 −0.80 0.93 24.77 RN1192 +0.93 0.29 23.60 RN1193 −0.84 0.92 24.93

The strain indicated in table 8 as RN1041 was transformed with plasmid pRS323, a standard cloning vector containing the HIS3-gene and a 2μ origin of replication, thereby complementing the histidine auxotrophy.

The results show:

-   -   RN1041 produces glycerol, which makes sense since both GPD1- and         GPD2-genes are active and gldA and DAK1 are not overexpressed.         Since adhE is not expressed in this strain, HAc consumption is         low.     -   Strains RN1186 through RN1189 show glycerol and HAc consumption,         resulting in an increased ethanol titer as compared to RN1041.     -   The experiments with the transformants RN1190, RN1191 and RN1193         show the same results, i.e. consumption of glycerol and acetate,         however to a slightly lesser extent. Also here, the ethanol         titer is higher as compared to RN1041. The result of strain         RN1192 is an artefact, as later characterization showed that         this strain had lost its plasmid pRN957.

Overexpression of either a homologous or heterologous dihydroxyacetone kinase, in combination with overexpression of gldA and adhE, results in a simultaneous consumption of acetate and glycerol under anaerobic conditions.

Example 7 AFM Experiments

The experiment described in Example 6 was repeated in a slightly different set-up, i.e. the AFM (Alcoholic Fermentation Monitor), which allows on-line carbondioxide determination, during the experiment.

The strains tested were RN1041, RN1041+pRN595, RN1186, RN1187, RN1188 and RN1189. The strain RN1041 was transformed with plasmid pRS323, a standard cloning vector containing the HIS3-gene and a 2μ origin of replication, thereby complementing the histidine auxotrophy.

The strains were pre-cultured overnight in Mineral Medium with 2% glucose as carbon source, in a rotary shaker at 280 rpm and 30° C.

The cells were harvested and an AFM experiment was started as described above.

Samples were taken at regular intervals and sugars, ethanol, glycerol and HAc were determined by HPLC.

Results are shown in the Table below.

TABLE 9 Glycerol and HAc consumption and ethanol production values per strain at time = 112 hours. Net glycerol increase (−) or HAc decrease (+) (grams consumption Ethanol production Strain per litre) (grams per litre) (grams per litre) RN1041 +1.4 0.1 24.0 RN1041+ +1.1 0.4 24.1 pRN595 RN1186 −0.3 0.7 25.5 RN1187 −1.2 1.0 25.5 RN1188 −0.3 0.7 25.2 RN1189 −1.1 1.0 25.6

The evolution of the glycerol and HAc levels in time are shown in FIGS. 1 and 2.

Strains RN1041 and RN1041+pRN595 are showing a net glycerol production. Strains RN1186 and RN1188 are initially showing glycerol production; however, after approximately 24 to 32 hours, glycerol consumption commenced and continued until in the end a net glycerol consumption was observed.

Strains RN1187 and RN1189 do not exhibit the initial glycerol production, as seen with RN1186 and RN1188. After 24 hours, glycerol consumption commences. The glycerol consumption is significantly higher in these strains as compared to RN1186 and RN1188. These results indicate that deletion of the GPD1-gene results in higher glycerol consumption than the deletion of the GPD2-gene.

Strain RN1041+pRN595 is showing a higher HAc consumption than the reference strain RN1041. RN1186 and RN1188 are exhibiting a higher HAc consumption than RN1041+pRN595. This result indicated that glycerol consumption enhanced HAc consumption. This effect is even stronger in strains RN1187 and RN1189.

Example 8 Glycerol Dehydrogenase Activity Assay

Cell free extracts (CFE) of strain RN1041 and RN1190 were prepared as described above. The glycerol dehydrogenase activity assay, adopted from the protocol of Lin and Magasanik (1960) J Biol Chem. 235:1820-1823, was performed. The results are shown in the Table below.

TABLE 10 glycerol dehydrogenase activity assay Sample Cofactor Increase in A340/min RN1041 NAD+ 0.00  5 μl CFE RN1190 NAD+ 0.02  5 μl CFE RN1041 NAD+ 0.00 20 μl CFE RN1190 NAD+ 0.09 20 μl CFE RN1041 NADP+ 0.00  5 μl CFE RN1190 NADP+ 0.00  5 μl CFE RN1041 NADP+ 0.00 20 μl CFE RN1190 NADP+ 0.00 20 μl CFE

The strain indicated in table 10 as RN1041 was transformed with plasmid pRS323, a standard cloning vector containing the HIS3-gene and a 2μ origin of replication, thereby complementing the histidine auxotrophy.

These results indicate that: a) E. coli gldA, expressed in RN1190, is NAD+-dependent, and b) that increase in the amount of CFE resulted in a proportional increase of the conversion rate of NAD+, and hence of glycerol into dihydroxyacetone. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A Saccharomyces cell which has been genetically modified to comprise: (a) an exogenous gene encoding an enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity, that confers on the cell the ability to convert acetic acid into ethanol; and (b) a bacterial gene encoding an enzyme with NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase activity (EC 1.1.1.6), wherein the Saccharomyces cell does not comprise a genetic modification that reduces specific NAD⁺-dependent formate dehydrogenase activity in the cell, wherein the exogenous gene encoding the enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of: (i) SEQ ID NO:1, and/or (ii) SEQ ID NO:3, and/or (iii) SEQ ID NO:5; and/or a variant thereof, wherein the variant of (i), (ii), and/or (iii) is an enzyme in Tables 1, 2, and 3, respectively is 85% identical to SEQ ID NO:1, and/or SEQ ID NO:2, and/or (iii) SEQ ID NO:5, and wherein the bacterial gene encoding the enzyme with NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase activity comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding an amino acid sequence with at least 90% amino acid sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:7.
 2. The Saccharomyces cell according to claim 1, wherein the cell further comprises a genetic modification that reduces specific NAD⁺-dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in the cell.
 3. The Saccharomyces cell according to claim 2, wherein the genetic modification that reduces specific NAD⁺-dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in the cell is one or more genetic modifications that reduce the expression of an endogenous NAD₊-dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and/or inactivates a gene encoding an endogenous NAD₊-dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
 4. The Saccharomyces cell according to claim 3, wherein the NAD+-dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO: 15 or
 16. 5. A process for producing ethanol using the Saccharomyces cell of claim 1, comprising the step of fermenting a medium with a Saccharomyces cell, wherein the Saccharomyces cell has been genetically modified to comprise (a) an exogenous gene encoding an enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity, that confers on the cell the ability to convert acetic acid into ethanol, and (b) a bacterial gene encoding an enzyme with NAD⁺-linked glycerol dehydrogenase activity (EC 1.1.1.6), wherein the Saccharomyces cell does not comprise a genetic modification that reduces specific NAD⁺-dependent formate dehydrogenase activity in the cell, wherein the exogenous gene encoding the enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence of: (i) SEQ ID NO:1, and/or (ii) SEQ ID NO:2, and/or (iii) SEQ ID NO:5; and/or a variant thereof, wherein the variant of (i), (ii), and/or (iii) is an enzyme in Tables 1, 2, and 3, respectively is 85% identical to SEQ ID NO:1, and/or SEQ ID NO:2, and/or (iii) SEQ ID NO:5, and wherein the bacterial gene encoding the enzyme with NAD+-linked glycerol dehydrogenase activity comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding an amino acid sequence with at least 90% amino acid sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:7; and (i) a source of at least one of hexose and a pentose; (ii) a source of acetic acid; and (iii) a source of glycerol, the Saccharomyces cell ferments acetic acid, glycerol and at least one of the hexose and the pentose to ethanol, and the process optionally comprises a step of recovering the ethanol.
 6. The process according to claim 5, wherein the Saccharomyces cell further comprises a genetic modification that increases the specific activity of dihydroxyacetone kinase, wherein the modification is overexpression of a nucleotide sequence encoding a dihydroxyacetone kinase, wherein the nucleotide sequence encoding the dihydroxyacetone kinase comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding an amino acid sequence with at least 90% amino acid sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:8, or SEQ ID NO:9, or SEQ ID NO:25.
 7. The process according to claim 5, wherein the Saccharomyces cell further comprises a genetic modification that increases at least one of: (i) specific acetyl-CoA synthetase activity; and (ii) transport of glycerol into the cell.
 8. The process according to claim 7, wherein (i) the nucleotide sequence encoding the acetyl-CoA synthetase encodes (A) an acetyl-CoA synthetase with a higher maximum rate than acetyl-CoA synthetase encoded by S. cerevisiae ACS1 gene, or (B) an acetyl-CoA synthetase with a higher affinity for acetate than the affinity of acetyl-CoA synthetase encoded by S. cerevisiae ACS2 gene, and (ii) the genetic modification that increases transport of glycerol into the cell's overexpression of a nucleotide sequence encoding (A) a glycerol uptake protein and/or (B) a glycerol channel.
 9. The process according to claim 7, wherein the genetic modification that increases the specific acetyl-CoA synthetase activity does so under anaerobic conditions.
 10. The process according to claim 5, wherein the Saccharomyces cell comprises at least one of: (i) a functional exogenous xylose isomerase gene, that confers on the cell the ability to isomerise xylose into xylulose; and (ii) functional exogenous genes encoding an L-arabinose isomerase, an L-ribulokinase and an L-ribulose-5-phosphate 4-epimerase, which genes together confer on the cell the ability to convert L-arabinose D-xylulose 5-phosphate.
 11. The process according to claim 5, wherein the Saccharomyces cell is a member of a species selected from the group consisting of S. cerevisiae, S. exiguus, and S. bayanus.
 12. The process according to claim 5, wherein the medium contains or is fed with a lignocellulosic hydrolysate.
 13. The process according to claim 5, wherein the Saccharomyces cell ferments under anaerobic conditions.
 14. The process according to claim 7, wherein specific acetyl-CoA synthetase activity is modified by overexpression of a nucleotide sequence encoding an acetyl-CoA synthetase enzyme.
 15. The process according to claim 8, wherein (A) the nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol uptake protein comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding an amino acid sequence with at least 90% amino acid sequence identity to at least one of SEQ ID NO:10 and SEQ ID NO:11, and (B) the nucleotide sequence encoding the glycerol channel comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding an amino acid sequence with at least 90% amino acid sequence identity to the amino acid sequence between residues 250 and 530 of SEQ ID NO:12.
 16. The process according to claim 10, wherein the Saccharomyces cell comprises at least one additional genetic modification that results in a characteristic selected from the group consisting of: (a) increased xylulose kinase specific activity; (b) increased flux of the pentose phosphate pathway; (c) reduced nonspecific aldose reductase specific activity; (d) increased transport of xylose and/or arabinose into the host cell; (e) decreased sensitivity to catabolite repression; (f) increased tolerance to ethanol, osmolarity or organic acids; and (g) reduced production of by-products. 